THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

A  GENERAL  ACCOUNT 


THE  GARY  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

The  results  of  the  study  of  the  Gary  Pubhc 
Schools,  undertaken  on  the  invitation  of  the  Super- 
intendent and  the  Board  of  Education  of  Gary,  will 
be  published  in  eight  parts,   as  follows: 

The  Gary  Schools:  A  General  Account 

By  Abraham  Flexner  and  Frank  P.  Bachman 

(2$  Cents; 

Organization  and  Administration 
George  D.  Strayer  and  Frank  P.  Bachman 

(15  Cents) 

Costs 
Frank  P.  Bachman  and  Ralph  Bowman 

(25  Cents) 

Industrial  Work 
Charles  R.  Richards 

(2;  Cents) 

Household  Arts 
Eva  W.  White 

(10  Cents) 

Physical  Training  and  Play 
Lee  F.  Hanmer 

(10  Cents) 

Science   Teaching 
Oris  W.  Caldwell 

(10  Cents) 

Measurement  of  Classroom  Products 
Stuart  A.  Courtis 

(30  Cents) 

Any  report  will  be  sent  postpaid  on  receipt  of  the 
amount  above  specified. 


THE 
GARY  SCHOOLS 

A  GENERAL  ACCOUNT 


BY 

ABRAHAM  FLEXNER 

AND 

FRANK  P.  BACHMAN 


GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

61  Broadway  New  York 

1918 


LA 

id  5 

FS 


COPYRIGHT,  19 1 8, 
BY 

General  Education  Board 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

FAGS 

Preface v 

I.    Gary:    Its  Industries  and  Its  People  3 

II.    Plan  and  Plant 17 

III.  Organization 30 

IV.  Administration  and  Supervision     .     .  39 
V.     Course  of  Study 48 

VI.    Teaching  Staff 63 

VII.     Classroom  Instruction 73 

VIII.     Classroom  Tests 88 

IX.    Science  Teaching 106 

X.    Industrial  Work 122 

XL    Household  Arts 139 

XII.    Physical  Training  and  Play     .     .     .  152 

XIII.  Auditorium  and  Religious  Instruction  161 

XIV.  Enrollment,  Attendance,   and   Pupil 

Progress 174 

XV.     Costs 190 

XVI.    Conclusion 196 

XVII.    Appendix 209 


PREFACE 

The  study  of  the  Gary  Schools  was  undertaken  by  the 
General  Education  Board  at  the  request  of  the  Board  of 
Education  and  the  City  Superintendent  of  Gary.  The 
results  of  the  study  will  be  pubHshed  in  a  series  of  special 
reports,  dealing  with  the  more  characteristic  or  important 
aspects  of  school  work  at  Gary,  and  the  present  volume 
which  endeavors  to  present  a  general  account  of  the  entire 
system.  In  the  writing  of  this  volume,  the  separate  reports 
have  been  summarized  in  the  chapters  dealing  with  their 
respective  subjects.  For  the  remaining  chapters  of  the 
book  and  for  the  general  presentation,  the  authors  are 
alone  responsible. 

The  general  volume  has  been  issued  first,  in  order  that 
a  comprehensive  view  of  the  entire  situation  might  be 
presented.  It  will  be  promptly  followed  by  detailed 
studies  of  (i)  Organization  and  Administration,  (2) 
Costs,  (3)  Industrial  Work,  (4)  Household  Arts,  (5) 
Physical  Training  and  Play,  (6)  Science  Teaching,  and  (7) 
Measurement  of  Classroom  Products. 

The  authors  desire  to  make  grateful  acknowledgment 
to  the  City  Superintendent  and  other  school  officials 
of  Gary  for  their  cooperation  and  courtesy,  and  to  their 
associates  in  this  study  for  their  unfailing  patience  and 


vi  PREFACE 

helpfulness.  Special  thanks  are  due  to  Mr.  Frank  L. 
Shaw  for  his  services  in  compiling  and  arranging  statis- 
tical data,  and  for  his  reading  and  correction  of  proof; 
to  Miss  Edith  Holman,  who  assisted  in  the  statistical 
work,  and  to  Miss  Anna  C.  Thornblum  who  in  the  ca- 
pacity of  secretary  has  rendered  valuable  aid  at  every 
stage  of  the  undertaking.  Mr.  Trevor  Arnett,  of  the 
University  of  Chicago,  Dr.  Frederick  Cleveland,  of  Bos- 
ton, and  Dr.  Frank  E.  Spaulding,  Superintendent  of  the 
Cleveland  Schools,  read  the  report  on  Costs  and  made 
important  suggestions  regarding  the  arrangement  of  the 
tables  contained  in  that  volume.  Miss  Anna  M.  Cooley, 
of  Teachers  College,  read  the  report  on  Household  Arts, 
Mr.  Shattuck  O.  Hartwell,  Superintendent  of  the 
Muskegon  Schools,  the  report  on  Organization  and  Ad- 
ministration, and  Dr.  Frank  W.  Ballou,  Associate 
Superintendent  of  the  Boston  Schools,  the  report  on 
Measurement  of  Classroom  Products.  The  whole  of  the 
present  volume  was  read  by  Professor  Paul  H.  Hanus,  of 
Harvard  University.  To  all  those  who  have  thus  assisted 
the  authors  take  pleasure  in  acknowledging  their  indebt- 
edness. 

New  York,  August  i,  19 18. 

Abraham  Flexner, 
Frank  P.  Bachman. 


>  Clarke  School 

f  West  Gary  School 

O  Ambridge  School 

U  Beveridge  School 


>J  Jefferson  School 

■  •  Emerson  School 

h  Froebel  School 

X  24th  Avenue  School 

«  Glen  Park  School 


THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

A  GENERAL  ACCOUNT 


I:    GARY:    ITS  mDUSTRIES  AND  ITS  PEOPLE 

THE  town  of  Gary  is  located  twenty  seven  miles 
southeast  of  Chicago,  on  the  southern  point  of 
Lake  Michigan/  in  a  region  that  a  bare  decade 
ago  was  given  over  entirely  to  swamp  land,  sand  dunes, 
and  forests  of  scrub  oak.  It  is  one  of  many  industrial 
centers  which  in  recent  years  have  sprung  up,  almost 
over  night,  on  the  outer  rim  of  a  large  city.  To  provide 
space  for  its  own  plants  and  those  of  its  subsidiaries,  to 
secure  in  advance  abundant  room  for  future  expansion, 
with  necessary  terminal,  transportation,  and  housing 
faciHties,  the  United  States  Steel  Corporation  purchased 
14,000  acres  of  land,  with  eight  miles  of  unbroken  lake 
frontage.  The  present  investment  in  site  and  plants 
runs  well  above  $100,000,000;  the  population  of  the  town 
has  reached,  perhaps  passed,  fifty  thousand. 

On  the  extreme  east  of  the  strip,  facing  the  lake,  is  the 
plant  of  the  National  Tube  Company,  now  under  construc- 
tion; directly  south,  the  Coke  By-Products  Company,  with 
its  hundreds  of  ovens;  westward,  across  an  artificial  harbor 
large  enough  for  great  ore  vessels,  Hes  the  Indiana  Steel 
Company,  with  a  square  mile  of  furnaces  and  mills;  on 
its  western  flank  are  the  American  Sheet  and  Tin  Plate 
^See  frontispiece  map. 


4  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

Company,  the  Kirk  Railroad  Yards,  the  proposed  site  of 
the  American  Car  and  Foundry  Company,  and  the  plant 
of  the  American  Bridge  Company,  the  second  largest 
fabricator  of  structural  steel  in  the  world.  Two  miles 
westward,  amidst  mountains  of  slag  brought  from  the 
blast  furnaces  and  used  as  basic  material,  is  situated  the 
Universal  Portland  Cement  Company,  with  a  daily 
capacity  of  40,000  barrels.  South  of  the  Grand  Calumet 
River,  and  to  the  extreme  east,  a  site  has  been  reserved 
for  the  American  Locomotive  Company.  Near  by  are 
two  independent  organizations — The  Gary  Bolt  and 
Screw  Company  and  The  Union  Drawn  Steel  Company. 
Together  the  companies  mentioned  form  an  industrial 
colony  of  gigantic  proportions,  already  employing  be- 
tween 12,000  and  15,000  men,  and  likely  to  require  in 
the  near  future  twice  or  thrice  the  number. 

Gary  is  thus  a  steel  town.  The  steel  mill  workers  form 
the  basis  and  the  bulk  of  the  population;  there  are,  be- 
sides, executives,  clerks,  shopkeepers,  etc.,  enough  to 
carry  on  the  business  of  the  mills  and  to  sustain  the  life 
of  the  community.  Leisure  class  there  is  practically 
none;  Gary  is  a  working  town.  Its  occupations  center 
about  the  production  and  fabrication  of  steel,  and  about 
such  business,  trades,  and  professions  as  are  required  to 
care  for  a  community  of,  say,  fifty  thousand  people. 
Complete  occupational  data  are  not  available,  but  we 
know  how  young  men  and  women  between  nineteen 
and  twenty,  heads  of  families  with  children  under  twenty 
one,  and  working  mothers — a  total  of  5,321 — are  occu- 


ra 


p^ 


GARY  5 

pied.^  The  data,  while  covering  the  principal  occupation 
groups,  are,  of  course,  no  index  to  the  total  number  en- 
gaged in  particular  pursuits,  and  may  not  show  correctly 
the  relative  proportions  of  skilled,  semiskilled,  and  un- 
skilled workers.  However,  on  the  face  of  the  figures, 
it  appears  that  three  fifths  of  all  Gary  wage  earners  are 
employed  in  manufacture,  and  that  not  more  than  a 
fourth  of  those  engaged  in  gainful  pursuits  are  skilled 
workmen. 

The  population  of  the  town  is  predominantly  foreign  in 
origin.     In  1910,  only  27  per  cent,  were  native  bom  of 

Figure  i 
CoBiPOSinoN  OF  Total  Population,  U.  S.  Census  1910 


*See  Table  I,  Appendix  D,  page  216.  For  occupational  data  on  boys 
and  girls  between  fourteen  and  eighteen  years,  see  Table  XXX,  Appen- 
dix D,  page  250. 


6  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

native  parentage;  22  per  cent,  more  were  natives,  but 
both  parents  of  four  fifths  of  these  were  foreign  born. 
Thus  well  nigh  two  thirds  of  the  total  population  of 
Gary  in  19 10  m-ay  be  regarded  as  of  actual  or  recent 
foreign  stock.     (Figure  i.) 

Of  the  foreign  stock,  two  thirds  come  from  Austria, 
Hungary,  Russia,  Italy,  and  Greece,  a  fourth  from 
Germany,  Great  Britain,  the  Scandinavian  countries, 
and  Canada,  with  scattered  representatives  from  almost 
every  other  quarter  of  the  globe.  (Figure  2.)  A  census 
in  April,  19 16,  limited  to  persons  under  twenty  one  years 
of  age,  makes  a  similar  showing.     Of  the  12,876  youths 

Figure  2 

Nationality  of  Total  Foreign  Born,  and  of  Parents  of  All  Native 

Born  Having  Both  Parents  Foreign 


GARY  7 

about  whom  we  have  information/  77  per  cent,  are  native 
born  (Figure  3),  but  only  25  per  cent,  are  of  native  par- 
ents.   Both  parents  of  45  per  cent,  and  one  parent  of  7  per 

Figure  3 
Composition  of  Population  Under  Twenty  One  Years  of  Age  in  i  9  i  6 


cent,  were  immigrants;  12  per  cent,  had  themselves  passed 
through  Ellis  Island.  Thus,  of  the  youth  of  Gary,  57 
per  cent,  belong  to  foreign  stock,  that  is,  are  either 
foreign  born  themselves  or  are  of  foreign  parentage.  Of 
this  foreign  stock,  sUghtly  more  than  three  fourths  come 
from  southern  and  eastern  Europe.  (Figure  4.)  Since 
the  census  of  19 10,  this  contingent  has  relatively  in- 

'These  data  were  collected  by  the  Gary  authorities  in  making  the 
school  census  of  1916;  we  tabulated  them,  following  the  classification  of 
the  U.  S.  Census  of  1910. 


8 


THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 


creased;  western  and  northern  Europe  has  contributed 
relatively  less. 
It  may   be  safely  stated  that  at  the  present  time 

Figure  4 

Nationality  of  Foreign  Born  Under  Twenty~One  Years  of  Age, 

AND  OF  Parents  of  Native  Born  Under  Twenty-One 

Years  of  Age  Having  Both  Parents  Foreign 


two  thirds  of  the  population  of  Gary  are  either  for- 
eign born  or  of  full  foreign  parentage.  But  these 
foreigners  did  not  all  ship  direct  for  Gary;  a  considerable 
proportion  have  gone  thither  from  other  American  cities, 
for  a  canvass  of  the  foreign  born  heads  of  famiHes  shows 
that  44  per  cent,  have  been  in  this  country  eleven  years 
or  more,  their  immigration  thus  antedating  the  founding 


GARY  9 

of  Gary.^  A  little  under  half  (46  per  cent.)  of  the  present 
heads  of  famiUes  with  children  under  twenty  one  have 
been  in  Gary  less  than  five  years,  47  per  cent,  have  been 
there  longer,  7  per  cent,  are  unaccounted  for.  Two  per 
cent,  have  been  there  since  the  city  began,  10  per  cent, 
have  been  there  less  than  a  year. 

The  composition  of  the  population  of  Gary  is  an  edu- 
cational factor  that  needs  constantly  to  be  held  in  mind. 
All  American  cities  are  more  or  less  foreign,  but  the  Gary 
situation  is  distinctly  more  difficult  and  complex  than  is 
usual.  The  Gary  statistics  for  general  population  date 
back,  as  before  stated,  to  1910;  since  then  the  population 
has  more  than  trebled  and  it  is  practically  certain  that 
this  increase  has  taken  place  more  largely  on  the  non- 
American,  than  on  the  native  American  side.  Even  so, 
on  the  basis  of  the  1910  figures,  49  per  cent,  of  the  Gary 
white  population  is  foreign  born  as  against  Boston's 
36  per  cent.,  Detroit's  34  per  cent.,  St.  Louis's  18  per 
cent.,  and  Kansas  City's  10  per  cent.,  considering  the 
larger  cities;  and  Akron's  19  per  cent.,  South  Bend's 
25  per  cent.,  and  Hammond's  27  per  cent.,  considering  the 
smaller  cities  of  industrial  type.-  Thus  Gary  has  an  un- 
usually large  proportion  of  foreigners  and  continues  to 
receive  additional  increments  with  perhaps  unprece- 
dented rapidity. 


^Data  were  collected  as  to  heads  of  families  having  children  under 
twenty  one  years  of  age,  a  total  of  4,633 — 2,772  foreign  born,  1,758  native 
bom,  and  103  unknown. 

^See  Table  II,  Appendix  D,  page  217. 


10  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

A  given  school  organization  will  undoubtedly  accom- 
plish more  satisfactory  results  with  a  homogeneous  than 
with  a  heterogeneous  school  population  recruited  largely 
from  culturally  backward  peoples.  Hence,  Gary  is 
fairly  entitled  to  a  measure  of  discount  on  this  score. 
On  the  other  hand,  too  much  should  not  be  made  of  it, 
for  every  American  city  faces  a  more  or  less  similar  prob- 
lem, though  for  the  most  part  on  more  advantageous 
terms. 

We  turn  now  from  the  people  to  the  conditions  under 
which  they  live.  Through  a  subsidiary  organization 
called  the  Gary  Land  Company,  the  Steel  Corporation 
was  instnmiental  in  laying  out  and  building  that  part 
of  the  city  which  lies  mainly  between  the  Grand  Calumet 
River,  on  the  north,  and  the  Wabash  Railroad,  on  the 
south — an  area  of  about  nine  square  miles.  Modem 
methods  of  city  planning  were  not  employed.  A  checker- 
board scheme  was  followed;  lots  of  thirty  feet  frontage 
with  a  depth  of  one  hundred  fifty  to  two  hundred  feet 
were  marked  off;  the  streets  all  cross  at  right  angles. 
Two  reservations  were  made  for  park  purposes — one  of 
twenty  acres  on  the  east  side,  another  of  ten  on  the  west. 
The  heart  of  the  city  lies  at  the  intersection  of  Broadway, 
a  wide  thoroughfare  running  north  and  south,  and  Fifth 
Avenue,  running  east  and  west.  Broadway  is  the  main 
business  street;  the  Carnegie  Library,  the  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association,  and  the  federal  post  office  are 
situated  on  Fifth  Avenue  on  sites  donated  by  the  Gary 
Land  Company. 


GARY  II 

Most  of  the  dwelling  houses  in  this  section  of  the  city 
were  erected  by  the  Gary  Land  Company  and  sold 
on  easy  terms.  Though  close  together,  they  are  com- 
fortable, well  lighted,  sanitary,  and  attractive.  The 
monotony  is  somewhat  reheved  by  other  structures — 
churches,  apartment  houses,  and  more  ambitious  resi- 
dences, and  by  the  well  kept  lawns  characteristic  of  this 
part  of  the  town.  Here  dwell  nearly  one  half  of  the 
total  population — local  corporation  officials,  skilled  steel 
workers,  professional  and  trades  people. 

There  is,  however,  another  side  to  housing  in  Gary. 
One  half  of  Gary,  as  we  have  seen,  lives  in  decency  and 
comfort;  not  so  the  other  half.  South  of  the  holdings 
of  the  Gary  Land  Company  lay  a  large  tract,  which  was 
quickly  seized  by  land  speculators  who  undertook  to 
provide  shelter  for  the  vast  majority  of  Gary's  unskilled 
laborers.  Hundreds  of  ramshackle  houses,  generally 
wood,  occasionally  brick  or  stucco,  were  thrown  to- 
gether. Some  accommodate  a  single  family,  others  two 
families;  still  others  are  two  story  structures  of  indeter- 
minate capacity,  twenty  five  to  thirty  feet  wide,  a  hun- 
dred or  more  feet  long,  with  a  room  for  a  saloon  or  a  small 
store  on  the  first  floor  front.  For  the  most  part,  these 
structures  make  little  provision  for  either  health  or  safety. 
Few  of  these  houses  are  without  boarders,  and  the 
boarding  houses  frequently  receive  both  day  and 
night  shifts.  Scattered  about  these  subdivisions,  but 
located  principally  along  Broadway,  were  178  saloons, 
numerous  cabarets  and  dance  halls.     Thus  the  con- 


12  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

ditions  under  which   Gary's  "other  half"  lives  leave 
much  to  be  desired. 

The  different  schools  reflect  the  contrast  Just  por- 
trayed. The  Emerson  and  Jeflerson  schools  serve 
the  Gary  Land  Company  district;  of  persons  under 
twenty  one  years  of  age  in  the  Emerson  and  Jeffer- 
son sections  of  this  district,  44  and  54  per  cent., 
respectively,  are  native  white  of  native  parentage. 
The  Froebel  school  serves  the  workers'  section  to  the 
south  ;i  of  the  youth  from  which  it  is  recruited,  87  per 
cent,  are  of  foreign  stock — 69  per  cent,  come  of  foreign 
parents,  and  18  per  cent,  were  born  under  a  foreign  flag.^ 
(Figure  5.)^  Of  the  foreign  stock  of  the  Froebel  section, 
86  per  cent,  come  from  Austria,  Hungary,  Russia,  Italy, 
and  Greece,  i.e.,  southeastern  Europe,  while  only  5  per 
cent,  come  from  western  and  northern  Europe  and  Cana- 
da, and  9  per  cent,  from  all  other  countries.  (Figure  6.)^ 
This  concentration  of  southeastern  European  peoples 
in  an  essentially  unrestricted  and  "wide  open"  section 
creates  a  social — whence  an  educational — ^problem  of 
great  difficulty. 

^The  Froebel  district  comprises  the  principal  section  south  of  the 
Wabash;  Emerson  and  Jefferson  are  north,  the  one  east  and  the  other 
west  of  Broadway.  Near  the  center  of  these  respective  districts  are  the 
Froebel,  Emerson,  and  Jefferson  schools.     (See  frontispiece  map.) 

^he  school  census  of  1916  showed,  for  the  entire  city,  12,876  youth 
under  twenty  one  years  of  age.  Of  these,  exclusive  of  the  colored,  5,854 
were  in  the  Froebel,  1,023  in  the  Emerson,  and  2,506  in  the  Jefferson 
district. 

'See  page  13.  *See  page  14. 


13 


14 


GARY  15 

It  must  be  clear  now  that  from  the  start  the  Gary 
schools  had  to  deal  with  a  new,  rapidly  increasing,  and 
undeveloped  population,  mostly  industrial  in  occupation, 
mostly  foreign  in  origin.  The  field  was,  however,  open 
for  the  development  of  an  educational  system  adapted 
to  local  conditions.  There  were  no  antiquated  school 
buildings,^  there  was  no  teaching  staff  with  uniform,, 
fixed  habits.  The  very  mobility  and  rawness  of  a  large 
part  of  the  population  were  from  this  point  of  view  an 
advantage,  for  the  patrons  of  the  schools  were  without 
the  educational  traditions  that  might  readily  have 
resisted  departures  from  common  usage.  The  Steel 
Corporation  has  neither  helped  nor  hindered.  Its 
business  relations  have  been  Hmited  to  the  sale  by  the 
Gary  Land  Company  of  the  Jefferson  school  and  sites 
for  other  schools;  in  matters  of  school  policy,  it  has  exer- 
cised no  influence  whatsoever.  The  school  authorities 
thus  enjoyed,  and,  as  we  shall  see,  in  certain  highly 
important  respects  took  advantage  of,  the  opportunity 
to  break  away  from  estabHshed  practices. 

Thus,  while  Gary  would  hardly  have  been  selected  de- 
liberately as  the  fittest  place  for  a  considerable  experiment 
in  public  education,  nevertheless,  from  one  point  of  view, 
perhaps  no  place  could  have  been  chosen  where  there  were 
fewer  obstacles  and  where  conditions  were  more  favor- 
able to  innovation. 

Though  the  facts  about  the  Gary  schools  will  emerge 

^However,  two  adjacent  small  towns  have  been  annexed  to  Gary,  and 
these  possessed  very  meager  school  buildings,  which  are  still  in  use. 


i6  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

as  our  study  proceeds,  it  may  be  worth  while  to  give  in 
advance  a  brief  historical  and  statistical  summary.  The 
Gary  school  organization  began  in  September,  ij>o6, 
school  opening  with  one  teacher,  occupying  a  one 
room  building.  In  October  of  the  same  year,  Mr. 
WilHam  A.  Wirt,  at  that  time  superintendent  of  the 
Bluffton  (Indiana)  schools,  was  appointed  superintend- 
ent, although  he  did  not  take  full  charge  until  July, 
1907.  There  are  now  in  the  system  nine  separate  build- 
ings and  groups  of  portables;  two  of  the  buildings, 
Emerson  and  Froebel — the  only  permanent  ones  erected 
since  Mr.  Wirt  took  charge — are  large  and  modern. 
There  were  employed  during  1915-16  in  the  regular  day 
schools  two  assistant  superintendents,  two  medical  in- 
spectors, three  supervisors,  four  principals,  136  teachers, 
and  II  shopmen,  together  instructing  a  total  of  5,654 
pupils.  The  combined  total  current  expenditure  for  the 
regular  day  schools  during  1915-16  was  $203,682.38. 


II.    THE  PLAN  AND  PLANT^ 

THE  Gary  schools  can  be  properly  understood  only 
when  they  are  viewed  in  the  Hght  of  the  general 
educational  situation.  For  years,  while  the  prac- 
tice of  education  has  in  large  part  continued  to  follow 
traditional  Unes,  the  progressive  Hterature  of  the  sub- 
ject has  abounded  in  constructive  suggestions  of  far- 
reaching  significance.  Social,  poHtical,  and  industrial 
changes  have  forced  upon  the  school  responsibilities 
formerly  laid  upon  the  home.  Once  the  school  had  mainly 
to  teach  the  elements  of  knowledge;  now  it  is  charged 
with  the  physical,  mental,  and  social  training  of  the 
child  as  well.  To  meet  these  needs,  a  changed  and  en- 
riched curriculum,  including,  in  addition  to  the  common 
academic  branches,  community  activities,  facihties  for 
recreation,  shop  work,  household  arts,  has  been  urged 
on  the  content  side  of  school  work;  on  the  side  of  meth- 
od and  attitude,  the  transformation  of  school  methods, 
discipline,  and  aims  on  the  basis  of  modern  psychology, 
ethics  and  social  philosophy  has  been  recommended  for 
similar  reasons.  No  better  formulation  of  this  point 
of  view  has  been  made  than  that  by  Professor  Hanus 
in  his  "Modern  School": 

'For  detailed  account,  see  report  on  Organization  and  Administration, 
by  George  D.  Strayer  and  Frank  P.  Bachman. 

17 


i8  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

"The  education  demanded  by  a  democratic  society  to- 
day is  an  education  that  prepares  a  youth  to  overcome 
the  inevitable  difficulties  that  stand  in  the  way  of  his 
material  and  spiritual  advancement;  an  education  that, 
from  the  beginning,  promotes  his  normal  physical  devel- 
opment through  the  most  salutary  environment  and  ap- 
propriate physical  training;  that  opens  his  mind  and  lets 
the  world  in  through  every  natural  power  of  observation 
and  assimilation;  that  cultivates  hand-power  as  well  as 
head-power;  that  inculcates  the  appreciation  of  beauty 
in  nature  and  in  art,  and  insists  on  the  performance  of 
duty  to  self  and  to  others;  an  education  that  in  youth 
and  early  manhood,  while  continuing  the  work  already 
done,  enables  the  youth  to  discover  his  own  powers  and 
limitations,  and  that  impels  him  through  oft-repeated 
intellectual  conquests  or  other  forms  of  productive  ef- 
fort to  look  forward  to  a  life  of  habitual  achievement 
with  his  head  or  his  hands,  or  both;  that  enables  him 
to  analyze  for  himself  the  intellectual,  economic,  and 
political  problems  of  his  time,  and  that  gives  the  insight, 
the  interest,  and  the  power  to  deal  with  them  as  success- 
fully as  possible  for  his  own  advancement  and  for  social 
service:  and,  finally,  that  causes  him  to  realize  that  the 
only  way  to  win  and  to  retain  the  prizes  of  Ufe,  namely, 
wealth,  culture,  leisure,  honor,  is  an  ever-increasing 
usefulness  and  thus  makes  him  feel  that  a  life  without 
growth  and  without  service  is  not  worth  living."^ 

The  conception  set  forth  by  Professor  Hanus  makes 

'Hanus:  The  Modem  School,  pp.  3-4. 


THE  PLAN  AND  PLANT  19 

an  instantaneous  appeal.  We  are,  however,  in  some 
danger  of  begging  the  question,  when  we  call  a  curriculum 
modern,  progressive,  or  enriched.  Obviously,  the  tradi- 
tional course  of  study  is  expanded  or  extended,  whenever 
additions  are  made  to  it;  whether  or  not  it  has  been  en- 
riched depends  on  the  results  obtained  as  evidenced  by  a 
critical  examination  of  school  performance.  Those  who 
participated  in  the  present  study  of  the  Gary  schools 
were  all  hospitable  to  modern  educational  ideas,  in  the 
sense  that  they  believe  in  the  importance  of  developing 
new  types  of  educational  opportunity;  but  they  also 
believe  that  every  departure  must  render  a  satisfactory 
account  of  itself.  The  innovator  must  give  a  definite 
reason  for  his  innovations  and  the  results  must  bear  him 
out.  It  is  with  a  constant  realization  of  the  experi- 
mental nature  of  the  imdertaking  that  the  present  volume 
deals  with  the  Gary  schools  as  an  effort  to  embody  mod- 
em educational  ideas. 

Primarily,  modernization  is  a  question  of  the  curricu- 
lum, in  the  broadest  sense  of  that  term.  The  first  step 
in  modernizing  the  school  is  to  modernize  the  course  of 
study,  by  the  introduction  of  new  subjects  and  activities, 
the  elimination  of  other  subjects  or  parts  of  subjects, 
the  redistribution  of  emphasis,  the  change  of  school  spirit 
and  attitude.  The  moment,  however,  that  such  changes 
take  place,  it  becomes  necessary  to  make  corresponding 
changes  in  the  school  plant  and  facihties,  to  provide  a 
daily  program  of  more  extensive  and  complicated  char- 
acter with  a  different  type  of  school  organization,  and  to 


20  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

procure  a  specialized  stafif  competent  to  administer  the 
richer  and  more  complicated  scheme.  Most  of  the  pres- 
ent volume  will  be  devoted  to  the  successive  consider- 
ation of  these  details,  since,  given  the  Gary  plan  as  a  con- 
ception, upon  them  depends  its  success  in  execution. 

Gary  furnishes  an  admirable  example  of  what  expan- 
sion of  the  curriculum  means.  It  offers  in  the  elemen- 
tary school  instruction  or  opportunity  of  four  different 
t}pes:  (i)  academic  work  in  the  traditional  school 
subjects,*  (2)  science,  industrial  training,  and  domestic 
arts,-  (3)  community  or  group  work  in  the  auditorium,^ 
(4)  physical  education  and  play.  A  given  class  will  every 
day  devote  two  or  three  hours  to  the  common  school  sub- 
jects, two  hours  to  special  work  in  shop  or  laboratory, 
an  hour  or  two  to  play,  and  an  hour  to  the  auditorium. 
The  school  day  thus  runs  seven  hours,  not  counting  the 
luncheon  period.  Of  these  seven  hours,  the  ordinary 
school  subjects  get  on  the  whole  about  the  same  amount  of 
time  as  is  allotted  to  them  in  conventional  schools,  though 
obviously  they  lose  their  exclusive  emphasis,  while 
science,  drawing,  and  shop  work,  the  auditorium,  and 
physical  training  receive  at  Gary  a  degree  of  attention 
that  is  quite  unprecedented.^     Thus,  the  Gary  curricu- 


'I.e.,    reading,   spelling,  grammar,    writing,    arithmetic,  geography, 
and  history. 

^I.e.,  drawing,  science,  sewing,  cooking,  manual  training,'forge,  foundry, 
print  shop,  etc. 

'This  type  of  work  is  highly  developed  in  only  the  four  largest  schools. 
^These  matters  are  all  discussed  more  fully  in  subsequent  chapters. 


THE  PLAN  AND  PLANT  21 

lum  embodies  the  modern  standpoint  as  above  charac- 
terized, for  it  takes  explicit  account  not  only  of  the  in- 
tellectual, but  of  the  physical  and  social  needs  and  possi- 
bilities of  the  child. 

We  have  said  that  the  moment  the  curriculum  is 
modernized,  corresponding  facilities  must  be  provided. 
The  old-fashioned  school,  teaching  the  three  R's, 
needed  merely  classrooms  with  Httle  or  no  equipment. 
The  course  of  study  outlined  above  makes  far  dif- 
ferent demands  in  the  way  of  buildings  and  equip- 
ment. The  Gary  school  plant  is  not  indeed  by  any 
means  of  uniform  excellence;  but  every  part  of  it  shows 
even  amidst  most  unfavorable  conditions  a  distinct  ef- 
fort to  make  possible  something  in  the  way  of  an  ex- 
panded curriculum,  while  two  of  the  nine  schools— the 
Emerson  and  the  Froebel — belong  to  the  very  best  type 
of  modern  school  construction  and  can  hardly  be  paral- 
leled outside  our  largest  and  richest  communities.  The 
Emerson  school  contains  thirty  classrooms,  seven  special 
rooms  used  for  laboratory  or  studio  purposes,  shops,^ 
rooms  for  domestic  arts,-  auditorium,  gymnasium  and 
swimming  pool,  and  abundant  playground  space,  well 
stocked  with  apparatus.  The  building  contains  both 
elementary  and  high  school,  but  is  mainly  devoted  to 
the  former,  since  64  per  cent,  of  the  pupils  in  attendance 
belong  to  the  elementary  grades.  Viewed  as  an  elemen- 
tary school,  the  laboratory  and  shop  equipment  are 

'For  details  see  Chapter  X. 
^For  details  see  Chapter  XI. 


22  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

probably  not  equaled  in  any  other  elementary  school 
in  the  United  States.  The  Froebel  school  is  in  its  es- 
sential features  a  duplicate  of  the  Emerson,  though  a 
different  set  of  shops^  is  provided. 

Of  the  remaining  schools,  the  Jefferson,  erected  in  1907, 
was  of  conventional  type,  but  has  been  remodeled  so  as 
to  offer  facilities  for  a  certain  amount  of  laboratory, 
shop,  and  auditorium  work;  the  Glen  Park  and  Beveridge 
schools,  built  by  neighboring  communities  prior  to  their 
annexation  to  Gary,  are  inadequate  buildings,  in  which 
only  a  few  of  the  features  of  the  Gary  plan  are  at- 
tempted. The  other  four  schools,  situated  in  outlying 
districts,  are  mainly  portables,  destined  before  long  to  be 
replaced.  It  is,  however,  worthy  of  note  that  the  entire 
system,  including  the  makeshifts  Just  mentioned,  is 
characterized  in  greater  or  less  degree  by  the  effort  to 
fill  a  lengthened  school  day  with  a  diversified  curricu- 
lum. The  least  favored  school  is  in  position  to  carry  on, 
more  or  less  well,  nature  study,  gardening,  physical  edu- 
cation, recreation  and  play,  while  the  schools  that  may 
be  regarded  as  permanent  parts  of  the  plant  are,  all  the 
circumstances  considered,  really  notable. 

This,  then,  is  one  side  of  the  Gary  plan — the  enrich- 
ment of  the  curriculum  and  the  provision  of  necessary 
faciUties  in  the  form  of  buildings,  grounds,  and  equip- 
ment adjusted  thereto.  These  things  did  not,  it  is  true, 
originate  at  Gary,  nor  are  they  by  any  means  limited  to 
Gary;  every  one  of  them  can  be  found  in  some  form  or 

'For  detaDs,  see  Chapter  X. 


THE  PLAN  AND  PLANT  23 

other  somewhere  or  other.  In  ahnost  every  large 
city  in  the  country  efforts  have  been  made,  especially  in 
the  more  recent  school  plants,  to  develop  some  of  the 
features  above  mentioned.  It  is  none  the  less  true  that 
perhaps  nowhere  else  have  the  schools  so  frankly  adopted 
the  poHcy  in  question,  and  perhaps  nowhere  else  does 
every  school  in  the  system- so  plainly  endeavor  to  carry 
an  extended  course  of  study  within  the  limits  set  by 
conditions. 

It  is,  however,  not  to  be  supposed  that  the  plan  was 
applied  in  precisely  its  present  form  at  the  outset.  Far 
from  it.  There  has  been  a  distinct  process  of  develop- 
ment at  Gary,  at  times  such  rapid  and  unstable  develop- 
ment that  our  account  will  in  some  respects  be  obsolete 
before  it  is  printed.  When  the  Emerson  school  was 
opened  in  1909,  the  equipment  in  laboratories,  shops, 
museums,  while  doubtless  superior  to  what  was  offered 
by  other  towns  of  the  Gary  type,  could  have  been 
matched  by  what  was  to  be  found  in  the  better  favored 
larger  towns  and  cities  at  the  same  period.  The  gym- 
nasium, for  example,  was  not  more  than  one  third  its 
present  size;  the  industrial  work  was  not  unprecedented 
in  kind  or  extent;  the  boys  had  woodwork,  the  girls 
cooking  and  sewing.  But  progress  was  rapid:  painting 
and  printing  were  added  in  1911 ;  the  foundry,  forge,  and 
machine  shop  in  191 2.  The  opportunities  for  girls  were 
enlarged  by  the  addition  of  the  cafeteria  in  191 2.  The 
auditorium  reached  its  present  extended  use  as  recently 
as  the  school  year  1913-14.     The  Froebel  school,  first  oc- 


24  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

cupied  in  the  fall  of  191 2,  started  with  facilities  similar  to 
those  previously  introduced  piecemeal  into  the  Emerson. 
On  the  side  of  educational  opportunities  and  facilities  the 
present  situation  represents  then  the  culmination  of  a  de- 
velopment that  has  occupied  the  entire  life  history  of 
the  community. 

The  second  characteristic  feature  of  the  Gary  plan  is 
the  administrative  arrangement  by  means  of  which  an 
effective  and  economical  use  of  the  increased  facilities  is 
sought.  The  organization  in  question  is  commonly  called 
the  "duplicate  "  school.  The  term  is  really  a  misnomer,  as 
we  shall  see,  but  its  tentative  use  will  assist  the  reader  to 
understand  the  Gary  plan  of  organization. 

For  the  sake  of  clearness,  it  will  be  well  to  explain  the 
theory  of  the  so-called  "dupHcate"  school  by  a  simplified 
imaginary  example: 

Let  us  suppose  that  elementary'-  school  facilities  have 
to  be  provided  for,  say,  1,600  children.  If  each  class  is 
to  contain  a  maximum  of  40  children,  a  schoolhouse  of 
40  classrooms  would  formerly  have  been  built,  with 
perhaps  a  few  additional  rooms,  little  used,  for  special 
activities;  except  during  the  recess  (12  to  i  :^o)  each  reci- 
tation room  would  be  in  practically  continuous  use  in  the 
old  line  subjects  by  one  and  the  same  class  from  9  to  3 130, 
when  school  is  adjourned  till  next  morning.  A  school 
plant  of  this  kind  may  be  represented  by  Figure  7,^  each 
square  representing  a  schoolroom,  belonging  to  a  par- 
ticular class. 

^See  page  25. 


THE  PLAN  AND  PLANT  25 

The  "duplicate"  school  takes  care  of  its  1,600  pupils 
very  differently.  Instead  of  providing  40  classrooms  for 
40  classes,  it  provides  only  20  classrooms,  capable  of 
holding  800  children;  but  it  provides,  in  addition,  play- 
grounds, laboratories,  shops,  gardens,  gymnasimn,  and 
auditorium,  also  capable  of  holding  800  children.     If, 

Figure  7 

Represents  Old-Fashioned  Schoolhouse 

40  rooms  for  40  classes,  of  40  children   each,  1.  e.,  facilities  for  the 

academic     instruction    of     i,6oo    children.     A     school  yard  and    an 

extra  room  or  two,  little  used,  for  special  activities   are  also  usually 

found. 


now,  800  children  use  the  classrooms  while  800  are  using 
the  other  facilities,  morning  and  afternoon,  the  entire 
plant  accommodates  1,600  pupils  throughout  the  school 
day;  and  the  curriculum  is  greatly  extended  for  all  aUke, 
since,  without  taking  away  anything  from  their  classroom 
work,  all  pupils  get  the  other  activities  also.  A  school 
thus  equipped  and  organized  may  be  represented  by 


26 


THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 


Figure  8,^  in  which  A  represents  20  classrooms  taking  care 
of  40  children  each  (800  children)  and  B  represents  extra 
facilities,  taking  care  of  800  children.  As  A  and  B  are 
in  simultaneous  operation,  1,600  children  are  cared  for, 
all  being  in  attendance  during  the  entire  school  day. 


Figure  8 
Represents  the  Gary  Equipment 
\  B 


Twenty  classrooms  for  academic 
instruction  of  20  classes  of  40 
children  each  (800  children)  in 
the  morning  hours  and  an  equal 
number  in  the  afternoon  (1,600 
in  all  daily). 


Special  facilities,  taking  care  of  800 
children  in  the  morning  hours 
and  an  equal  number  in  the 
afternoon  hours  (1,600  in  all 
daily). 


Auditorium 

Shops 

Laboratories 

Playground,  gardens, 
gymnasium  and  library 

This  method  of  visualizing  the  "duplicate"  school 
serves  to  correct  the  misconception  above  mentioned. 
The  plan  aims  to  secure  the  intensive  use  of  enlarged  and 
diversified  school  facilities;  yet  it  would  be  incorrect  to 
say  that  20  classrooms,  instead  of  40,  as  under  the  old 


THE  PLAN  AND  PLANT  27 

plan,  accommodate  1,600  children.  For  though  the 
number  of  classrooms  has  indeed  been  reduced  from 
40  to  20,  special  faciUties  of  equal  capacity  have  been 
added  in  the  form  of  auditorium,  shops,  playground,  etc. 
The  20  classrooms  apparently  saved  have  been  replaced 
by  special  faciHties  of  one  kind  or  another,  under  an 
organization  that  uses  both  simultaneously. 

The  extended  curriculum  and  the  new  type  of  organiza- 
tion therefore  support  one  another.  The  social  situation 
requires  a  scheme  of  education  fairly  adequate  to  the  entire 
scope  of  the  child's  activities  and  possibilities;  this  cannot 
be  achieved  without  a  longer  school  day  and  a  more  varied 
school  equipment.  The  "dupHcate"  school  endeavors 
to  give  the  longer  day,  the  extended  curriculum,  and  the 
more  varied  activities  with  the  lowest  possible  investment 
in,  and  the  most  intensive  use  of,  the  school  plant.  The 
so-called  "dupHcate"  school  is  thus  a  single  school 
with  two  different  types  of  faciHties  in  more  or  less 
constant  and  simultaneous  operation,  morning  and  af- 
ternoon. 

Though  the  point  is  one  to  which  we  shall  shortly 
return  for  a  fuller  discussion,  it  is  perhaps  worth  while 
to  call  attention  in  this  connection  to  the  schematic 
nature  of  the  preceding  discussion.  We  have  assumed 
that  the  capacity  of  regular  classrooms  is  exactly  equal 
to  the  capacity  of  special  facilities  and  that  intensive  use 
means  fairly  constant  and  simultaneous  use  of  both  types 
of  facilities.  We  shall  discover  that  this  is  not  strictly 
the   case;   that   is,    if   the   program   is   controlled   by 


28  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

educational  principle  rather  than  administrative  con- 
venience, the  two  types  of  facilities  are  not  necessarily 
exactly  equal  in  capacity,  and  there  is  a  certain  amount 
of  inevitable  wastage  in  the  use  of  the  special  facili- 
ties. 

It  is  nevertheless  true  that  the  Gary  plan  is  economical 
as  respects  the  use  of  elaborate  faciHties.  But  the  sense 
in  which  the  word  is  used  requires  explanation.  Nothing 
could  of  course  be  more  economical  than  the  old-fashioned 
school  in  which  each  room  is  occupied  all  day  long  by  the 
same  class.  That  is,  from  the  standpoint  of  economy, 
a  bookish  school,  organized  by  classes,  cannot  be  sur- 
passed. When,  however,  the  curriculum  is  expanded 
so  as  to  include  science,  shop  work,  and  other  activities, 
the  conventional  type  of  school  organization  is  ill 
adapted.  The  Gary  plan  of  organization  appears, 
as  will  be  shown,  to  utilize  such  facilities  with  less  waste 
than  any  other  type  of  organization  yet  suggested. 

Though  the  plan  is  economical  when  viewed  in  the 
light  of  the  opportunities  offered,  it  sprang  from 
educational  considerations,  not  from  considerations  of 
economy  or  convenience.  There  was  no  problem  of 
congestion  at  Gary;  nor  was  the  town  seeking  to  reduce 
expense.  The  duplicate  organization  is  simply  an  intel- 
ligent attempt  to  make  efficient  use  of  varied  facihties — 
classrooms  as  well  as  shops  and  laboratories.  Obviously, 
the  more  efficiently  facilities  can  be  used,  the  more  pupils 
a  given  plant  will  handle  and  the  lower  will  be  the  per 
capita  cost  at  which  each  child  will  enjoy  the  particular 


THE  PLAN  AND  PLANT  29 

advantages  offered  to  him.  But  though  the  plan  lends 
itself  to  the  relief  of  congestion,  and  though,  as  we  shall 
see,  equal  educational  opportunities  can  probably  not  be 
obtained  so  cheaply  on  any  other  basis,  the  conception 
itself  is  in  its  origin  educational — not  administrative  or 
financial.  As  such,  it  represents  a  distinct  contribution 
to  educational  organization. 


III.    ORGANIZATION* 

WE  HAVE  pointed  out  that  the  Gary  plan  is 
characterized  by  two  features:  (i)  an  ex- 
tended curriculum,  mth  facilities  to  correspond, 
(2)  a  peculiar  t^pe  of  school  organization,  devised  for 
the  purpose  of  operating  efficiently  and  economically 
the  more  compHcated  program.  In  the  present  chapter 
we  shall  endeavor  to  show  how  the  extended  curriculum 
is  converted  into  a  daily  school  program  and  how  the 
new  type  of  organization  procures  an  effective  and  eco- 
nomical use  of  school  facilities. 

The  Gary  elementary  curriculum  provides,  as  has  been 
stated,  four  distinct  t>^es  of  training:  (i)  academic  work, 
that  is,  instruction  in  the  three  R's,  geography,  and 
history;  (2)  special  work,  that  is,  science,  shop  work, 
and  domestic  arts;  (3)  physical  training  and  play;  (4) 
auditorium  activities,  including  choral  singing,  individual 
performance  on  violin  or  piano,  dramatic  and  other  group 
exercises.  In  subsequent  chapters  we  shall  consider  the 
amount  and  quality  of  instruction  in  each  field;  for  the 
present  we  are  concerned  simply  with  the  making  and 
operating  of  the  daily  time  schedule. 

'For  detailed  account,  see  report  on  Organization  and  Administration, 
by  George  D.  Strayer  and  Frank  P.  Bachman. 

30 


ORGANIZATION  31 

The  manner  in  which  the  four  different  types  of  ac- 
tivity are  combined  in  a  daily  class  schedule  may  be 
illustrated  by  the  program  of  a  primary  grade  at  the 
Emerson  school: 

8:15 —  9:15  Language  and  numbers 

9:15 — 10:15  Handwork  and  nature  study 

10:1 5 — 1 1:15  Play  and  physical  training 

11:15 — 12:15  Luncheon 

12:1 5 —  1:15  Handwork  and  nature  study 

1:15 —  2:15  Language  and  numbers 

2:15 —  3:15  Auditorium 

3:15 —  4:15  Play  and  physical  training 

The  class  in  question  has  its  school  day  of  seven  hours 
divided  as  follows: 

Ordinary  academic  work,  two  hours; 
Special  work  (science,  shop,  domestic  arts),  two  hours; 
Play  and  physical  training,  two  hours; 
Auditorium,  one  hour. 

At  a  higher  level,  the  following  program  of  a  fourth 
grade  class  shows  the  t^pes  of  work  done  in  the  successive 
periods : 

8:15 — 9:15  Academic  work  12:15 — ^'-^5  Academic  work 

9:15 — 10:15  Special  work  1:15 — 2:15  Special  work 

io:is — 11:15  Academic  work  2:15 — 3:15  Physical  training 

11:15 — 12:15  Luncheon  3:15 — 4:15  Auditorium 

This  class  has  a  day  made  up  of  three  hours  of  academic 
work,  two  hours  of  special  work,  one  hour  each  of  physi- 
cal training  and  auditorium. 
What  is  true  of  the  types  of  work  at  the  Emerson  school 


32 


THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 


is  true  of  the  Froebel,  Jefferson,  and  Beveridge  schools, 
and  in  a  measure  true  of  the  very  smallest  Gary  schools. 
The  following  schedule  of  a  primary  class  at  the  24th 
Avenue  school  shows  this: 


8:45 —  9:10 

jNIusic 

I  :oo— 1 :4s 

Play 

9:10—  9:30 

Literature 

1:45-2:05 

Nature  study 

9:30 — 10:15 

Play 

2:05—2:30 

Drawing 

10:15—10:45 

Numbers 

2:30—2:45 

Writing 

10:45 — 11:00 

Phonics 

2:45—3:00 

Phonics 

11:00 — 11:30 

Reading 

3:00—3:30 

Reading 

11:30—11:45 

Language 

3:30—3:45 

Spelling 

11:45 —  1:00 

Luncheon 

3:45—4:00 

Language 

The  plant  of  the  24th  Avenue  school  consists  of  five 
portables  and  an  old  one  room  rural  school  building. 
There  are  two  kindergarten  and  five  first  and  second 
grade  classes.  Yet  these  primary  classes  go  to  three 
different  teachers  and  have  three  separate  types  of  work: 
(i)  the  usual  primary  academic  instruction;  (2)  special 
work,  including  Hterature,  music,  drawing,  nature  study; 
and  (3)  play. 

A  moment's  consideration  of  the  fourth  grade  pro- 
gram above  given  will  indicate  the  problem  and  almost 
inevitably  suggest  the  manner  in  which  it  has  been 
solved. 

The  class  in  question  has  an  hour  of  academic  work 
with  a  regular  grade  teacher  the  first  thing  in  the  morn- 
ing in,  let  us  say,  room  29.  The  next  hour  the  class  has 
special  work,  let  us  say  nature  study,  in  the  nature  study 
laboratory,  for  which  purpose  the  class  obviously  vacates 
room  29  and  leaves  the  grade  teacher  with  whom  it  spent 


ORGANIZATION  33 

the  previous  hour;  the  third  hour  is  given  to  academic 
work  of  other  kinds,  for  which  it  goes  to  another  grade 
teacher  in,  let  us  say,  room  20;  after  luncheon  it  continues 
its  academic  work,  for  which  purpose  it  may  go  to  room 
29  or  to  room  20 — in  either  case,  using  only  one  of  the 
two  rooms  it  has  occupied  in  previous  academic  periods. 
Special  work — this  time  presumably  in  a  shop — carries 
the  class  somewhere  else  in  the  following  period;  physical 
training  leads  next  hour  to  gymnasium  or  playground; 
and  the  final  hour  is  spent  in  the  auditorium.  In  the 
course  of  the  day,  the  class  will  almost  necessarily  have 
occupied  two,  perhaps  three,  different  academic  class- 
rooms, a  laboratory,  a  shop,  the  gymnasium,  and  the 
auditorium. 

It  is  clear  that  if  room  29  and  room  20  and  the  teachers 
occupying  them  are  required  by  this  class  only  two  or 
three  hours  in  the  day,  some  other  uses  must  be  found 
for  both  rooms  and  teachers  during  the  rest  of  the  day; 
that  is,  rooms  must  be  occupied  and  teachers  employed 
by  other  classes  at  other  hours,  since  during  these  hours 
the  fourth  grade  class  which  we  are  following  is  busy  else- 
where— in  shop  or  laboratory  or  playground.  In  shops 
and  laboratories  the  same  condition  prevails — the  given 
class  spends  an  hour  in  the  woodworking  shop,  another 
hour  in  the  nature  study  laboratory;  obviously  other 
classes  must  precede  and  follow  in  both,  and  what  is 
true  of  the  rooms  and  shops  and  laboratories  and  in- 
structors needed  by  the  class  in  question  is  equally  true 
of  all  other  rooms,  shops,  laboratories,  and  teachers. 


34  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

What  has  this  fourth  grade  class  actually  been  doing? 
Hour  after  hour  it  has  changed  rooms  and  changed 
teachers,  in  order  that  it  may  recite  or  work  in  rooms 
specially  adapted  to  the  purposes  for  which  they  are 
used  under  teachers  specially  qualified  to  conduct  the 
several  exercises.  Instruction  is,  in  other  words,  organ- 
ized on  the  departmental  basis.  Instead  of  assigning 
each  class  to  a  classroom  teacher  who  conducts  instruc- 
tion in  all  the  branches  in  one  room  continuously  occupied 
by  the  same  class,  the  departmental  plan  involves  the 
use  of  several  teachers  for  each  class,  each  of  the  several 
teachers  being  in  charge  of  one  subject  or  related  group  of 
subjects;  and  every  class  circulates  among  the  rooms, 
shops,  and  laboratories  in  carrying  out  the  details  of  its 
day's  program.  The  departmental  plan,  with  rotation 
of  classes,  necessarily  accompanies  expansion  of  the 
curriculum,  since  no  single  teacher  can  possibly  teach  so 
many  diverse  subjects  and  no  single  room  can  possibly 
contain  the  different  kinds  of  apparatus  and  equipment 
required  for  several  kinds  of  subject  or  activity.  De- 
partmentalization thus  ought  to  secure  more  highly 
specialized  teaching  and  a  more  nearly  continuous  use  of 
elaborate  school  facilities  than  can  be  otherwise  secured. 

The  device  itself  is  of  course  not  new.  In  American 
colleges  work  is  "departmentalized."  There  is  a  teacher 
of  Latin,  a  teacher  of  mathematics,  a  teacher  of  physics, 
not  a  separate  teacher  of  each  class  in  all  subjects;  and 
classes  move  from  room  to  room  in  order  to  meet  their 
teachers  in  succession.     In  recent  years  departmentaliza- 


ORGANIZATION  35 

tion  has  spread  from  the  college  into  the  high  school, 
until  nowadays  well  organized  high  schools  and  latterly 
the  upper  grades  of  elementary  schools  are  often  "de- 
partmentalized," i.e.,  organized  with  special  teachers 
for  the  several  subjects,  rather  than  with  one  teacher 
for  each  grade.  The  innovation  at  Gary  lies  in  the 
extension  of  the  device  into  the  lower  grades  of  the  ele- 
mentary school. 

If  teachers  and  facilities  are  to  be  thus  employed,  it 
follows  that  different  classes  must  pursue  their  studies 
and  activities  in  different  orders  of  succession.  Instead, 
therefore,  of  the  fairly  uniform  order  of  subjects  which 
obtains  in  conventional  schools,  Gary  exhibits  an  ahnost 
endless  variety  of  combinations.  Conventional  schools 
are  incHned  to  start  the  day  with  classroom  work,  to  be 
relieved  after  an  hour  or  two  by  play  or  exercise.  At 
Gary,  one  class  starts  its  day's  work  with  academic  les- 
sons and  ends  with  play;  another  completely  reverses  this 
order,  starting  with  play  and  closing  with  classroom 
work.^ 

The  arrangement  just  described  is,  in  popular  phrase, 
said  to  keep  "all  school  facilities  going  at  full  capacity 
all  the  time."  This  is,  however,  not  strictly  true.  How 
nearly  the  scheme  can  come  to  attaining  continuous  and 
complete  use  of  school  facilities  is  indeed  a  nice  question. 
First  as  to  capacity:  A  simple  old-fashioned  schoolhouse 
is  used  to  the  limit  of  its  capacity  if  there  is  a  class  in 

^The  table,  page  36,  exhibits  the  programs  of  four  classes,  all  involving 
different  time  arrangements. 


36 


THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

Diversity  in  Program  Sequence 


SCHOOL 

A    2D    GRADE 

A   4TH   GRADE 

A  6th  GRADE 

AN  8th  GRADE 

HOURS 

CLASS 

CLASS 

CLASS 

CLASS 

8:15 

Physical 

Academic 

Auditorium 

Special 

training 

work 

work 

9:15 

Auditorium 

Special  work 

Physical 
training 

Special 

work 

10:15 

Special  work 

Academic 
work 

Special  work 

Academic 
work 

11:15 

Academic 
work 

Luncheon 

Special  work 

Luncheon 

12:15 

Luncheon 

Academic 
work 

Luncheon 

Academic 
work 

1:15 

Physical 

Special  work 

Academic 

Academic 

training 

work 

work 

2:15 

Special  work 

Physical 

Academic 

Physical 

training 

work 

training 

3:15 

Academic 
work 

Auditorium 

Academic 
work 

Auditorium 

each  room  every  hour  of  the  school  day.  Thus,  if  the 
schoolhouse  contains  forty  classrooms,  there  would  be 
forty  classes,  each  occupying  its  home  room  all  day  long, 
with  an  intermission  for  recess  and  an  occasional  period 
for  the  boys  at  manual  training  and  for  the  girls  at  cooking 
and  sewing.  The  capacity  of  the  plant  would  be  the  sum 
of  the  capacity  of  the  several  classrooms,  viz.,  i,6oo 
pupils,  and  it  would  be  used  to  capacity  during  the  entire 
school  day.  The  real  capacity  of  a  complex  plant  like  the 
Emerson  school  is  not,  however,  simply  the  sum  of  the 
pupil  capacity  of  the  several  classrooms,  shops,  labora- 
tories, etc.,  but  is  highly  variable,  depending  on  the  pro- 
gram and  the  kind  of  class  combinations  employed. 
Thus,  for  example,  the  auditorium  of  the  Emerson  school 
has  a  capacity  of  764.     If  a  program  is  constructed  which 


ORGANIZATION  37 

fills  the  auditorium  hourly — and  to  do  this  very  dissimilar 
classes  would  have  to  be  brought  together — the  Emerson 
school  plant  will  have  a  greater  capacity  than  under  a  pro- 
gram which  brings  into  the  auditorium  hourly — or  less 
frequently — smaller,  but  more  homogeneous,  groups. 
The  same  is  true  as  regards  gymnasium,  shops,  etc. 
If  care  is  taken  to  keep  gymnasium  groups  relatively 
small  and  homogeneous  enough  for  effective  individual  as 
well  as  group  work,  the  capacity  of  the  gymnasium  and 
with  it  the  capacity  of  the  school  shrinks;  if  gymnasium 
groups  are  large  and  heterogeneous,  total  plant  capacity 
is  increased.  If  the  shops  are  full  every  hour,  there  are 
rooms  available  elsewhere,  and  plant  capacity  is  increased; 
if  younger  children  assist  as  helpers,  the  rooms  which 
they  vacate  can  be  used  by  others,  and  thus  plant  ca- 
pacity is  increased;  if,  on  the  other  hand,  children  are 
not  employed  as  helpers,  they  must  be  cared  for  else- 
where and  total  capacity  is  by  so  much  reduced.  Obvi- 
ously, therefore,  while  an  old-fashioned  plant  has  a 
readily  calculable  capacity,  a  complicated  plant  may  ac- 
commodate a  greater  or  smaller  number  of  pupils,  accord- 
ing as  this,  that,  or  the  other  program  is  followed.  Judg- 
ment and  administrative  skill  of  a  high  order  are  required 
to  steer  a  safe  course. 

A  similar  situation  exists  as  respects  continuity  of 
use.  One  room  in  the  old-fashioned  schoolhouse  is  used 
just  as  long  as  another ;  all  rooms  are  indeed  continuously 
in  use  all  day  long,  be  the  day  five  hours  or  six.  The 
Gary  situation  is  more  complicated,  partly  because  of  the 


38  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

new  facilities,  like  the  auditorium  and  the  gymnasium, 
and  partly  because  the  school  day  is  seven  hours  for  pu- 
pils and  eight  hours  for  the  plant.  If  we  assume  six  hours 
as  a  normal  school  day  for  a  regular  teacher,  while  the 
school  day  for  the  pupil  is  seven  and  for  the  plant  eight 
hours,  classrooms  can  still  be  used  for  the  entire  plant 
day  if  a  few  extra  teachers  are  employed,  even  though  no 
teacher  works  more  than  six  hours  a  day.  But  if  a  labora- 
tory is  to  be  used  for  an  additional  hour  or  two  daily,  a 
second  instructor  is  likely  to  be  needed,  a  step  which 
would  entail  disproportionate  expense.  Practically,  there- 
fore, when  the  plant  day  is  eight  hours,  auditorium, 
shops,  laboratories,  that  is,  all  special  facilities,  must  be 
idle  at  least  two  hours  a  day,  or  one  fourth  of  the  time. 
Equally  continuous  use  of  all  facilities  is  therefore  prac- 
tically impossible,  if  the  school  day  extends  beyond  six 
hours;  it  is  difficult  to  attain  even  with  a  school  day  of 
six  hours,  unless  there  is  unusual  regularity  in  the  number 
of  classes  in  the  different  grades.  Nevertheless,  the 
Gary  type  of  organization  procures  a  larger  use  of  modern 
facilities  and  of  a  modern  plant  than  the  common  type 
of  organization,  which  requires  a  room  and  a  teacher  for 
each  class  and  allows  regular  rooms  to  be  idle  when 
special  facilities  are  in  service. 


IV.    ADMINISTRATION  AND  SUPERVISION^ 

THE  management  of  a  system  of  schools  conducted 
on  the  Gary  plan  is  obviously  a  highly  complicated 
affair.  Despite  the  fact  that  the  success  of  such 
a  system  depends  very  largely  on  effective  management, 
it  is  not  easy  to  tell  precisely  what  the  administrative 
and  supervisory  arrangements  of  the  Gary  schools  are. 
At  the  head  stands  the  superintendent.  The  superir- 
tendent  of  schools  in  an  American  city  has  usually  both 
business  and  educational  duties;  directly  as  well  as 
through  assistants  he  carries  out  the  provisions  of  the 
law  and  the  orders  of  the  board  of  education  in  respect 
to  aU  matters  involving  business,  and,  in  the  same  way, 
both  directly  and  through  assistants,  exercises  general 
control  of  educational  policies — meeting  supervisors  and 
the  teaching  staff  for  conference,  calling  for  examinations 
and  reports,  and,  as  occasion  offers,  visiting  classrooms 
and  laboratories,  now  for  the  purpose  of  making  an  in- 
spection, again  to  satisfy  himself  as  to  the  quality  of 
some  special  classroom  procedure,  or  the  competency 
of  particular  individuals.  The  activities  in  progress 
are  so  many,  even  in  a  small  system,  that  no  superin- 

^For  detailed  account,  see  report  on  Organization  and  Administration, 
by  George  D.  Strayer  and  Frank  P.  Bachman. 

39 


40  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

tendent  can  possibly  keep  in  constant  touch  with  all; 
but  there  is  assuredly  danger  of  collapse  somewhere  un- 
less the  superintendent's  hand  is  distinctly  felt  In  both 
the  main  fields  of  his  responsibiUty — business  manage- 
ment and  education. 

In  consequence  of  the  repeated  and  prolonged  absences 
of  the  superintendent  during  the  year  191 5-16,  central 
control  at  Gary  appeared  to  be  Hmited  to  general  direc- 
tion, mostly  on  the  business  side.  Educational  super- 
vision was  of  a  general  character  only.  The  superin- 
tendent gave  time  and  thought  to  plans  connected  with 
building  and  similar  needs,  selected  and  assigned  teach- 
ers, received  written  and  oral  reports  from  the  assistant 
superintendents  and  school  principals,  and  explained 
the  broad  educational  aims  and  policies  to  the  stafif. 
The  execution  of  educational  details  did  not,  however, 
come  directly  within  his  sphere.  In  other  words,  of  the 
two  important  concerns  of  the  ordinary  city  superintend- 
ent, the  supervisory  function  did  not  seem  to  bulk 
large. 

Supervision  feU  almost  altogether  to  assistants — an  as- 
sistant superintendent  who  directs  the  night  schools  and 
supervises  the  higher  elementary  grades,  an  assistant 
superintendent  in  charge  of  kindergarten  and  primary 
grades,  a  supervisor  or  special  teacher  of  handwriting,  a 
supervisor  of  physical  education,  who  also  has  teaching 
duties,  a  supervisor  of  the  industrial  arts,  who  at  the 
same  time  has  charge  of  repairs,  certain  heads  of  high 
school  departments,  who,  though  teachers,  appear  to 


ADMINISTRATION  AND  SUPERVISION         41 

have  a  sort  of  general  responsibility  for  their  several  sub- 
jects throughout  the  system,  and  school  principals.' 

The  theory  of  general  supervision,  which  accords 
with  the  practice  observed,  can  best  be  expressed  by 
saying  that  the  assistant  superintendents,  and  all 
supervisors,  for  that  matter,  develop  plans  and  outline 
ideals  in  accordance  with  the  Gary  plan,  and  then 
leave  the  teaching  staff  largely  to  realize  these  aims 
in  their  own  way.  However,  it  is  not  to  be  inferred  from 
this  that  the  assistant  superintendents  are  not  concerned 
with  the  efficiency  of  the  schools.  They  hold  teachers' 
meetings  three  or  four  times  a  year;  they  visit  classes, 
inspecting  the  instruction  and  making  suggestions  for  its 
improvement,  and  finally  grade  the  teachers.  They  give 
a  good  deal  of  attention  to  the  needs  of  individual  pupils, 
seeing  that  they  are  properly  classified ;  to  this  end,  they 
assemble  reports  on  children's  work,  determine  whether 
or  not  they  shall  be  promoted,  and  oversee  the  make-up 
of  their  daily  programs  and  the  organization  of  classes. 

The  special  supervisors  deal  with  given  branches  of 
instruction  only — the  handwriting  supervisor,  for  ex- 
ample, with  handwriting.  This  particular  special  super- 
visor corresponds,  however,  more  nearly  to  what  is  known 
as  a  special  teacher.  He  goes  from  building  to  building 
and  room  to  room  actually  teaching  classes,  particularly 
of  the  upper  grades ;  at  the  same  time,  he  counsels  teach- 
ers, gives  suggestions  about  their  work,  and  at  long  inter- 
vals brings  them  together  for  conference.  The  super- 
visor of  physical  training  works  in  much  the  same  way. 


42  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

The  supervisor  of  the  industrial  and  household  arts, 
as  stated  before,  also  looks  after  repairs  for  the  entire 
system,  and  oversees  some  of  the  new  constructive  work. 
He  is  in  and  out  of  the  several  shops  and  even  the  cook- 
ing and  sewing  rooms  almost  daily  and  knows  in  a  general 
way  what  is  going  on  in  every  shop.  He  also  meets  with 
the  shopmen  two  or  three  times  a  year  for  an  evening's 
discussion  of  their  problems. 

The  school  principal  is  an  executive  or  administrative, 
rather  than  a  supervisory,  officer.  He  has,  indeed,  little 
to  do  with  the  educational  side  of  the  school.  After 
organizing  his  school  in  consultation  with  the  superin- 
tendent and  assistant  superintendents,  he  looks  after  the 
building  and  grounds,  meets  parents,  handles  special  at- 
tendance and  discipline  cases,  orders  books  and  suppUes, 
and  makes  reports  to  the  superintendent;  he  also  ar- 
ranges the  programs  of  teachers  and  supplies  substitutes, 
holds  weekly  teachers'  meetings  after  school  hours,  and 
occasionally  visits  classes;  but  he  has  no  responsibility 
for  the  quaHty  of  the  teaching.  Records  of  enrollment,  of 
promotion,  and  of  scholarship  come  to  his  office,  but  the 
responsibility  for  what  pupils  do  and  for  their  promotion 
belongs  to  the  teachers  and  general  supervisors. 

These  supervisory  arrangements  are  hardly  calculated 
to  meet  the  unusual  problems  that  arise  in  a  situation  as 
complicated  and  novel  as  that  at  Gary.  Supervision 
of  the  kind  above  described  is  not  likely  to  determine 
whether  departures  from  conventional  practice  do  or  do 
not  make  good,  nor  is  it  hkely  to  overcome  the  obstacles 


ADMINISTRATION  AND  SUPERVISION        43 

arising  from  the  quality  and  antecedents  of  the  pupils. 
In  the  course  of  these  pages,  these  statements  will  be 
more  than  once  justified.  But  it  is  worth  while  in  this 
connection  to  record  a  few  instances  of  administrative 
and  supervisory  laxity,  such  as  tend  to  obscure  or  defeat 
the  demonstration  of  some  of  Gary's  innovations. 

We  have  referred  to  the  fact  that  young  children  are 
regularly  detailed  to  act  as  "helpers"  or  "observers"  to 
older  pupils  engaged  in  shop  or  laboratory  work,  while 
older  pupils  frequently  take  charge  of  classes,  assist  in 
keeping  records,  correct  papers,  etc.  This  practice  is 
defended  on  the  ground  that  participation  in  such  re- 
sponsibilities is  educative,  since  it  reproduces  an  impor- 
tant human  relationship.  But  does  it  work?  As  we 
shall  see  in  subsequent  chapters,  our  own  investiga- 
tions suggest,  in  the  main,  a  negative  answer.  Would  it 
work  if  efficiently  controlled?  That,  of  course,  no  one 
can  yet  say.  A  striking  though  not  essential  character- 
istic of  the  Gary  system  is  thus  imperiled  because  its 
operation  has  not  been  carefully  watched. 

Again,  we  have  called  attention  to  the  unusual  se- 
quence of  studies  sometimes  followed.  We  have  pointed 
out  that  class  schedules  are  so  arranged  that  one 
class  will  play  in  the  early  morning  and  do  its  work  in 
the  early  afternoon,  while  another  class — or  the  same 
class  another  term — reverses  the  arrangement.  Now, 
is  there  any  reason  why  children  should  not  play  in  the 
early  hours  of  the  morning  and  do  their  classroom  work 
in  the  early  hours  of  the  afternoon?     Gary  assumes  and 


44  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

believes  that  there  is  no  objection.  Is  there?  No  one 
really  knows.  The  question  lends  itself,  however,  to 
experimental  inquiry.  Given  classes  might  readily  be 
carried  for  a  series  of  years  alternating  the  former  ar- 
rangement with  the  latter,  while  others  are  carried  with 
the  common  order  of  studies.  A  series  of  graphs  might 
show  whether  the  level  of  class  work  is  affected  by  the 
factor  here  under  discussion.  Or,  perhaps  some  other 
experiment  could  be  devised  for  the  purpose  of  deter- 
mining the  question.  Similar  questions  should  be  asked 
in  reference  to  the  wisdom  of  extending  departmentaliza- 
tion into  the  lowest  grades.  In  any  event,  these  are 
experimental  problems  to  be  worked  out  cooperatively 
by  the  teachers  and  supervising  staff;  but  supervision  in 
this  sense^the  very  t^-pe  required  by  a  system  rich  in 
novelties  and  possibilities — has  not  been  instituted. 

One  more  illustration  may  be  employed.  Diversity 
of  facilities  and  activities  coupled  with  the  unusual  length 
of  the  school  day  makes  for  flexibility  of  program.  Gary 
indeed  believes  that  its  program  is  more  nicely  adjusted 
to  the  individual  child  than  is  the  case  elsewhere.  To 
what  extent  and  in  what  sense  is  this  true?  The  term 
"flexible"  is  properly  applied  to  leeway  used  in  order  to 
defer  to  a  particular  child's  need  or  opportunity.  A 
child  may  be  backward  or  unusually  capable;  a  "flex- 
ible" curriculum  places  him  accordingly.  Flexibility 
has  nothing  to  do  with  accident,  caprice,  or  instabiHty,  all 
of  which  are  hostile  to  the  formation  of  good  habit.  The 
Gary  organization  lends  itself  to  individual  adjustments, 


H 


ADMINISTRATION  AND  SUPERVISION        45 

but  whether  or  not  they  are  wisely  made  depends  on 
administrative  supervision.  Thus,  for  instance,  a 
seventh  grade  class  (No.  44)  in  the  Froebel  school  con- 
tained many  weak  pupils  in  unquestionable  need  of 
individual  consideration  and  attention.  Its  official 
spring  program  was  as  follows : 


8:15 

G>Tnnasium  (play)  or  library 

9:15 

Music 

10:15 

Arithmetic 

11:15 

English 

12:15 

Luncheon 

i:iS 

Auditorium 

2:1s 

Shop  (boys) ;  Cooking  or  sewing  (girls) 

3--I5 

United  States  history 

The  entire  class  of  31  pupils  recited  together  in  arith- 
metic at  the  scheduled  time.  Only  two  other  subjects, 
g}Tnnasium  and  Enghsh,  were  pursued  by  all  members, 
but  in  neither  of  these  branches  were  they  all  in  the  same 
class.  Twenty  three  took  no  music,  seven  no  history, 
and  four  did  not  attend  the  auditorium.  On  the  sur- 
face, these  variations  might  be  interpreted  as  represent- 
ing real  educational  adjustments.  In  point  of  fact, 
they  were  not  adjustments  to  serve  the  interests  of 
particular  pupils  or  to  secure  their  regular  advancement, 
but  merely  chance  arrangements,  the  product  of  loose 
administration  and  supervision. 

The  most  surprising  variations  occur  in  the  9:15  and 
2:15  periods.  At  9:15  the  class  is  scheduled  for  music. 
At  that  time,  thirteen  pupils  were  in  the  gymnasium,  seven 
were  taking  music,one  arithmetic,  two  shop,  six  cooking  or 


46  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

sewing,  and  two  drawing.  At  2:15  the  boys  were  sup- 
posed to  be  in  shop  and  girls  in  cooking  or  sewing.  Ac- 
tually, eight  went  to  g>^mnasium  or  library,  one  to 
music,  seven  to  shop,  nine  to  cooking  or  sewing,  five  to 
drawing,  and  one  to  history.  Again,  the  official  program 
calls  for  only  one  period  a  day  in  each  of  the  several 
studies;  and  yet  fourteen  pupils  took  two  hours  of  gym- 
nasium or  library  and  two  took  three  hours.  Twelve 
pupils  did  double  and  one  treble  duty  in  practical  work. 
All  told,  there  were  thus  not  less  than  fifty  four  deviations 
from  the  official  class  program,  but  only  three  were  to 
afiford  additional  academic  instruction — one  in  arithmetic 
and  two  in  English.  All  persons  concerned — teachers, 
principal,  and  children — were  questioned  about  these 
changes.  The  principal,  whose  written  endorsement  is 
required,  had  no  recollection  of  the  reasons  for  them 
and  no  record  of  them.  Although  the  pupil's  Program 
Card  reads,  "No  dropping  of  class  nor  change  of  program 
will  be  permitted  without  the  written  consent  of  the 
assistant  superintendent,"  the  children  had  not  consulted 
that  official.  A  teacher  employed  to  advise  with  children 
about  their  practical  work  could  throw  no  light  on  the 
situation.  Register  teachers,^  supposed  to  have  on 
file  "Permission  to  Change  Class"  slips,  had  barely  a 
half  dozen  of  them — not  one  completely  executed — and 
were,  therefore,  almost  wholly  unaware  of  what  had 
happened.     The  truth  is  that,  in  a  few  instances,  the 

^Seventeen  register  teachers  kept  the  records  of  this  one  class,  each 
doing  a  part  of  the  work. 


ADMINISTRATION  AND  SUPERVISION        47 

regular  teachers,  on  their  own  authority,  had  excused 
pupils  from  their  classes,  but  in  most  instances  children 
had  dropped  what  they  did  not  want  and  elected  what 
they  wanted,  provided  they  could  get  it,  without  con- 
sulting anybody.  Prolonged  inquiry  showed  clearly 
that  with  five  or  six  exceptions  all  the  changes  were  the 
result  of  childish  caprice  exercised  without  restraint. 

Nor  does  class  44  stand  alone.  Out  of  eleven  addi- 
tional Froebel  and  Emerson  classes  similarly  tabulated, 
in  six  there  was  not  a  single  pupil  taking  double  work  in 
any  of  the  regular  studies,  and  in  the  remaining  five,  not 
more  than  a  single  pupil  in  any  one  of  them.  In  no  class 
were  there  as  many  deviations  from  the  official  program 
in  special  work  as  in  class  44.  Still,  such  deviations  as 
there  were,  were  rarely  educational  adjustments;  they 
were  due  mostly  to  the  child's  own  choice,  or  to  accidents 
of  organization  at  the  time. 

The  upshot  of  our  consideration  of  the  Gary  plan  and 
the  Gary  organization  may  be  put  into  a  few  words.  The 
Gary  plan  is  as  large  and  intelligent  a  conception  as 
has  yet  been  reached  in  respect  to  the  scope  and  bear- 
ing of  pubHc  education.  The  administrative  scheme  by 
which  Gary  undertakes  to  carry  out  the  plan  is  in- 
genious to  the  point  of  originality.  The  arrangements 
for  controUing  and  supervising  the  operation  of  the 
scheme  are,  however,  defective;  there  is,  therefore, 
reason  to  fear  that  the  execution  of  the  plan  will  fall 
short  of  the  conception. 


V.    COURSE  OF  STUDY 

IN  DESCRIBING  the  Gary  plan  and  explaining  the 
way  in  which  the  daily  class  programs  are  con- 
structed, frequent  reference  has  already  been  made 
to  the  subjects  taught  and  the  special  activities  pur- 
sued. The  present  chapter  will,  however,  give  a  more 
detailed  account  of  the  course  of  study,  with  special 
reference  to  the  ordinary  school  subjects. 

The  Gary  schools — Uke  the  schools  of  all  other  Indiana 
towns — are  guided  by  the  state  course  of  study.  They 
teach  the  usual  school  subjects  and  "such  other  branches 
of  learning  and  other  languages  as  the  advancement  of 
the  pupils  may  require  and  the  trustees  from  time  to  time 
direct."  Fortunately,  the  ofi&cial  course  of  study  is  "not 
intended  to  limit  the  teacher's  personality  or  freedom," 
and  teachers  are  expressly  enjoined  to  adapt  their  in- 
struction "to  the  needs  of  their  particular  schools  and 
communities."^  On  the  other  hand,  the  state  prescribes 
a  uniform  series  of  textbooks  for  all  schools.  Though 
the  Gary  teachers  exercise  freedom  in  using  these  pre- 
scribed texts  and  are  liberally  supplied  with  additional 
material,  the    fact   remains    that    the    legally    desig- 


^Uniform  Course  of  Study  for  the  Elementary  Schools  of  Indiana, 
Bulletin  No.  17  of  the  State  Department  of  Education. 

48 


COURSE  OF  STUDY 


49 


nated  text  may  hamper  a  competent  and  progressive 
teacher. 

At  Gary,  as  elsewhere,  it  has  been  impossible,  for 
reasons  that  must  be  clear,  to  provide  imiform 
school  facilities.  The  nine  schools  therefore  differ  greatly 
in  size,  situation,  and  equipment.^  The  West  Gary 
school,  consisting  of  two  portables  with  an  open  play- 
ground, must  necessarily  offer  a  course  of  study  quite 
different  from  that  of  the  Froebel  school,  with  its  modern 
equipment,  gardens,  and  playgrounds.  The  West  Gary 
program  is  therefore  made  up  more  largely  of  the  three 
R's,  geography,  and  history,  though  a  certain  amount  of 
music  and  drawing  is  given,  the  last  named  including 
nature  study  and  handwork.^ 

The  programs  of  the  Froebel,  Emerson,  and  Jefferson 
schools^  contain  the  usual  studies — the  three  R's,  geog- 

iThe  different  schools  in  the  sj^stem  are: 


SCHOOLS 

NUMBER  OF 
TEACHERS 

TOT.\L  ENROLLIIEXT 

1915-16 

A\-ERAGE  DAILY 
ATTENDANCE 

West  Garv. 
Clarke  .      . 
Ambridge  . 
24th  Avenue 
Glen  Park. 
Beveridge  . 
Jefferson     . 
Emerson 
Froebel . 

2 
2 
3 

7 
8 
14 
20 
33 
58 

46 
52 

146 
347 
315 
683 

1,011 
967 

2,087 

30 
39 

92 
254 
224 
520 
728 
742 
1,503 

Total  .      .      . 

147 

5,654 

4,132 

-Table  III,  Appendix  D,  page  218. 
^Table  IV,  Appendix  D,  page  2ig. 


50  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

raphy,  history,  nature  study,  manual  training,  house- 
hold arts,  drawing,  music,  and  physical  training.  Over 
and  above  these  subjects  attention  should  be  directed  to 
the  separate  courses  in  botany,  zoology,  physics,  chem- 
istry, mechanical  drawing,  and  shop  work  in  great 
variety — the  shop  work  including  woodwork,  forge, 
foundry,  machine  practice,  sheet  metal,  printing,  paint- 
ing, and  shoe  repairing.  Certain  unusual  terms  occur- 
ring on  the  program,  such  as  "helpers"  and  "teachers' 
assistants,"  "expression,"  ''appHcation,"  and  "audito- 
rium," have  already  been  more  or  less  fully  explained. 
"Helpers"  and  "teachers'  assistants"  are  pupils  distrib- 
uted in  groups  of  four  or  five  among  the  shops,  labora- 
tories, and  classes  in  the  regular  subjects  to  observe, 
study,  or  assist.  "Expression"  denotes  instruction 
meant  to  develop  power  in  oral  language  and  taste  for 
good  Hterature,  as  contrasted  with  "reading,"  which 
refers  simply  to  the  mechanics  of  the  reading  process. 
"Application"  represents  a  similar  division  of  labor; 
teachers  in  the  fundamental  branches  teach  the  formal 
or  technical  phases  of  their  branches,  whereas  in  "ap- 
plication" children  are  supposed  to  be  drilled  expressly 
in  applying  what  they  have  learned.  Perhaps  the  most 
marked  departure  from  common  practice  is  the  "audi- 
torium," with  its  hourly  assemblage  of  several  classes  in  a 
single  group  for  entertainment  and  general  instruction  by 
means  of  moving  pictures,  lectures,  and  other  exercises. 

The  studies  and  activities  included  in  the  program 
above  given  are  grouped  in  two  divisions:  (i)    "regu- 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  51 

lar  work,"  pursued  continuously  by  all  children  and 
comprising  reading,  language,  spelling,  writing,  arith- 
metic, geography,  history,  "auditorium,"  and  physical 
training;  and  (2)  "special  work,"  under  which  are  under- 
stood handwork,  freehand  and  mechanical  drawing,  na- 
ture study  and  science,  music,  "expression,"  "apphca- 
tion,"  manual  training,  shop  work,  and  household  arts. 
No  class  pursues  at  one  time  all  the  "special  work"  of- 
fered in  its  grade  or  in  the  course  as  a  whole.  For  ex- 
ample, during  the  spring  term  191 5-16,  only  seven  of  the 
twelve  first  grade  classes  in  the  three  schools  imder  dis- 
cussion had  nature  study;  only  two  of  the  ten  fifth 
grade  classes  had  freehand  drawing.^  The  other  classes 
in  these  grades  may  have  had  these  branches  during 
some  other  term. 

In  theory,  all  children  in  the  lower  grades  are  supposed 
to  have  an  equal  amount  of  nature  study,  handwork  and 
freehand  drawing,  music,  "expression,"  and  "applica- 
tion"; and  all  children  in  the  upper  grades,  an  equal 
amount  of  drawing,  science,  and  shop  work,  though  the 
kind  of  drawing  and  science  studied,  and  the  particular 
shop  entered,  may  differ  with  the  pupil,  the  class,  and  the 
school. 

Equahty  of  opportunity  in  respect  to  these  special 
activities  in  a  given  school  is  obtained  by  rotating  children 
from  one  special  acti\ity  to  another.  By  means  of 
properly  arranged  cycles,  pupils  are  enabled  to  pur- 
sue in  succession  four  or  even  five  special  activities, 
^Table  IV,  Appendix  D,  page  219. 


52  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

each  for  a  given  number  of  weeks.  For  example,  in 
the  Jefferson  school,  1915-16,  the  first  four  elementary 
grades  rotated  more  or  less  regularly  through  nature 
study,  handwork  and  drawing,  music,  "expression,"  and 
"application";  the  upper  grades  rotated  through  nature 
study,  drawing,  and  cooking  or  sewing  for  girls,  and  shop 
for  boys.^  In  the  Froebel  school,  the  four  lower  grades 
were  scheduled  for  manual  training,  drawing,  and  nature 
study  one  half  of  the  year,  and  for  music  or  "expres- 
sion," and  "application"  the  second  half;  the  upper 
classes  rotated  through  science,  drawing,  and  shop 
work.-  The  Gary  practice  thus  concentrates  the  atten- 
tion of  the  pupil  on  a  particular  actixdty  for  a  definite 
period.  Instead,  for  example,  of  having  a  certain  sub- 
ject or  activity  twice  a  week  for  a  half  year,  he  pursues 
it  every  day  for  a  shorter  period.  The  scheme  presents 
no  peculiar  difficulties  in  respect  to  organization;  it  is 
advantageous  from  the  standpoint  of  economy,  and  edu- 
cationally, as  far  as  any  one  knows,  may  be  as  effec- 
tive as  any  other  arrangement. 

The  three  large  Gary  schools,  with  which  we  are  pri- 
marily concerned,  differ  considerably  as  to  the  kinds  of 
special  acti\aties  pro\dded.  The  science  work  is  prac- 
tically the  same  in  the  Froebel  and  Emerson  schools — 
both  offering  nature  study  and  separate  courses  in  zool- 
ogy, botany,  physics,  and  chemistry.  But  here  the 
similarity  stops;  in  the   practical   activities   Emerson 

'Table  V,  Appendix  D,  page  221. 
^Table  VI,  Appendix  D,  page  222. 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  53 

offers  poultty  raising,  forge,  foundry,  machine  shop,  and 
printing;  Froebel,  manual  training,  cabinet  making,  shoe 
repairing,  painting,  plumbing,  sheet  metal,  and  printing. 
Jefferson,  in  contrast,  has  a  single  shop,  where  children 
from  the  third  grade  up  get  a  composite  of  manual  and 
industrial  training.  These  differences  in  special  advan- 
tages arise  from  various  causes.  In  the  first  place,  no 
single  school,  no  single  group  of  school  children  can 
possibly  exhaust  the  special  acti\aties  which  possess 
educational  value.  While  an  expanded  curriculum  en- 
deavors to  make  a  varied  appeal  to  different  t>pes  of  ef- 
fort and  interest,  it  cannot  make  every  possible  appeal. 
There  is  therefore  no  reason  for  uniformity.  Inasmuch^ 
also,  as  the  shops  serve  production  and  repair  as  well  as 
education,  those  shops  have  been  installed  which  could 
be  made  more  or  less  self-supporting,  and  for  this  same 
reason  shops  have  not  been  duphcated. 

Shop  work,  science,  and  auditorium  exercises  are  of 
course  found  elsewhere  than  at  Gary.  The  Gary  pro- 
gram does  not  therefore  differ  from  other  school  pro- 
grams because  Gary  offers  these  activities  and  the  other 
schools  do  not.^  Gary  differs  simply  in  the  prominence 
which  it  gives  to  the  activities  in  question  in  the  ele- 
mentary school,  in  the  unusual  facilities  provided  for 
them,  and  in  the  emphasis  placed  upon  them.  Other 
schools  have  auditorium  exercises ;  but  nowhere  else  does 
the  auditorium  play  the  part  it  plays  at  Gary.     Other 


*TabIe  VII,  Appendix  D,  page  224. 


54  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

schools  teach  science  in  the  elementary  grades;  but 
where  are  the  elementary  schools  that  give  botany,  chem- 
istry, and  physics  in  such  admirable  laboratories?  Other 
elementary  schools  provide  manual  training;  but  where 
else  in  one  school  is  there  work  in  machine  shop,  forge, 
foundry,  printing,  and  gardening?  It  is  the  number  and 
the  excellence  of  these  opportunities  that  give  to  the 
Gary  course  of  study  its  novelty. 

One  other  feature  should  be  included  at  this  point, 
viz.,  the  library.  The  Gary  plan  in  its  full  form  con- 
templates an  effort  to  cultivate  in  children  a  discrimi- 
nating reading  taste,  and  to  teach  them  how  to  use  a 
library.  Conditions  are  favorable  to  this  effort.  The 
public  library  maintains  branches  at  the  Emerson  and 
Froebel  schools;  there  is  also  a  branch  in  the  Bever- 
idge  school  section,  and  Jefferson  is  within  a  short  walk  of 
the  main  library  building.  All  classes  of  these  schools 
are  supposed  to  have  a  Hbrary  period  once  a  week  or  once 
in  two  weeks,  the  period  being  taken  from  physical  train- 
ing and  play.  The  Hbrary  authorities  have  outlined  a 
simple  graded  course  of  eight  years,  consisting  of  five 
lessons  a  year,  on  the  use  of  books  and  the  use  of  the 
library.  In  addition,  children  are  introduced  to  good 
reading  and  they  are  assisted  with  such  reference  work  as 
their  regular  class  teachers  may  have  assigned  to  them. 
The  Jefferson  school,  however,  is  the  only  one  that  carries 
out  the  plan  with  anything  approaching  completeness. 
No  other  school  gives  library  instruction.  At  Beveridge 
the  children  attend  the  hbrary  regularly,  using  the  hour 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  SS 

for  reading.  At  Froebel,  although  assigned  to  the 
library,  the  children  go  at  irregular  intervals,  while  at 
Emerson  there  is  no  assignment,  the  Hbrary  being  used 
chiefly  by  high  school  students  as  a  study  room. 

The  precise  amount  of  time  given  at  Gary  to  each  sub- 
ject— regular  or  special — is  not  readily  made  out.  The 
schools  are  organized  on  the  basis  of  sixty  minute  periods. 
As  the  sixty  minute  period  is,  in  the  lower  grades,  at  least, 
too  prolonged  for,  say,  nature  study,  the  teacher  may 
devote  part  of  the  hour  to  the  three  R's,  or  to  drawing, 
thus  lessening  the  time  nature  study  actually  receives. 
On  the  other  hand,  some  kind  of  music— group,  class, 
or  solo  singing,  the  school  orchestra,  or  the  victrola — 
almost  invariably  makes  up  a  part  of  the  auditorium  ex- 
ercises. Besides  the  school  orchestras  of  Emerson  and 
Froebel;  which  meet  regularly  for  practice,  pupils  who 
are  to  take  part  in  the  orchestra  receive  individual 
lessons  on  the  violin,  etc.,  particularly  on  Saturdays. 
Music,  therefore,  receives  at  Gary  a  greater  emphasis 
than  the  formal  time  allotment  would  indicate.  Again, 
the  schools  do  not  all  schedule  the  same  amount  of  time 
for  the  special  activities;  there  is,  also,  as  will  appear 
later,  some  discrepancy  between  the  amount  of  time 
scheduled  and  the  amount  of  time  given. 

A  similar — and  perhaps  even  more  marked — uncer- 
tainty exists  as  to  the  amount  of  time  really  devoted  to 
the  more  common  subjects.  These  subjects  are  supposed 
to  occupy  at  least  two  hours  daily  in  the  lower,  and  not 
less  than  three  hours  in  the  upper,  grades.     But  teachers 


56  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

are  not  held  to  a  uniform  and  exact  division  of  time,  with 
definite  periods  for  reading,  spelling,  language,  writing, 
arithmetic.  They  di\'ide  a  period  as  in  their  judgment 
seems  best;  and,  as  their  ideas  differ,  the  time  actually  al- 
lotted to  each  of  the  regular  studies  varies  from  teacher 
to  teacher. 

In  consequence  of  these  difficulties,  the  time  table  con- 
structed by  us  for  the  Gary  schools^  does  not  represent 
daily  practice  as  closely  as  the  official  schedules  of  con- 
ventional systems.  Still,  the  average  number  of  hours 
ascribed  to  the  several  studies  and  activities  indicates — 
at  least,  roughly — common  Gary  practice,  and  depicts 
with  sufficient  exactness  for  general  purposes  the  central 
tendencies  of  the  schools,  although,  as  we  shall  see,  there 
are  some  marked  deviations  from  these  time  averages. 

When  studies  and  activities  are  serially  arranged  on  the 
basis  of  the  total  number  of  hours  assigned  to  them  by 
the  schedule,  general  school  practice  is  distinctly  chal- 
lenged.^ Physical  training  and  play,  drawing  and 
manual  training  and  the  auditorium,  or  the  special  sub- 
jects, all  take  precedence  over  the  conventional  sub- 
jects. Physical  training  and  play  get  twice  the  time 
assigned  to  reading  and  three  times  the  amount  assigned 
to  arithmetic;  science  gets  as  much  time  as  geography  and 
history  combined.  In  fact,  fifty  five  per  cent,  of  the  total 
time  of  the  elementary  school  schedule  goes  to  physical 


'Table  VTII,  Appendix  D,  page  226. 
n'able  IX,  Appendix  D,  page  228. 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  57 

training,  play,  shop  work,  auditorium,  music,  and 
Gennan;  35  per  cent,  to  the  three  R's — reading,  language, 
spelling,  and  arithmetic.  The  schedule  is,  however, 
not  strictly  carried  out.  For  example,  during  191 5-16, 
all  classes  in  Jefferson  and  the  first  four  grades  in  Froebel 
and  Emerson  were  scheduled  for  two  hours  of  physical 
training  and  play  daily,  and,  with  a  few  exceptions,  all 
classes  from  the  fifth  grade  up  in  Froebel  and  Emerson 
were  scheduled  for  one  hour.  But  these  assignments^ 
particularly  those  in  the  lower  grades — represent  op- 
portunities for  physical  training  and  play  rather  than 
time  actually  given  to  them.  In  the  first  place,  chil- 
dren are  not  held  to  regular  attendance.  Frequently, 
though  they  are  scheduled  for  two  hours  of  physical 
training  daily,  attendance  upon  one  period  is  optional. 
This  is  almost  invariably  true  when  the  two  hours 
come  together  at  the  beginning  or  at  the  end  of  the  school 
day.  In  the  second  place,  time  needed  for  outside  activ- 
ities, such  as  library  and  religious  instruction,  special 
home  work  in  music,  drawing,  or  assisting  at  home,  is 
usually  taken  from  the  physical  training  and  play 
assignment.  While  it  is  therefore  statistically  correct 
to  report  the  schedule  allotment  as  2,697  hours  to  physical 
training  and  play,  1,600  hours  (one  hour  daily  through- 
out the  elementary  school  course)  approximate  more 
nearly  the  time  given.  Even  so,  the  time  allowance  is 
decidedly  unusual. 

The   Gary  schedule   does  not  get  this  liberal  time 
allowance  for  special  activities  by  reducing  the  time 


58  THE  G.\RY  SCHOOLS 

allotment  of  the  common  or  fundamental  branches;  it 
gets  the  additional  time  by  lengthening  the  school  day. 
The  usual  school  day  in  the  fifty  cities  of  the  country 
having  a  population  of  100,000  or  more  is  five  hours.^  In 
the  one  hundred  and  twenty  cities  with  a  population  of 
25,000  and  less  than  50,000  (the  population  group  to 
which  Gary  belongs),  the  average  school  day  is  approxi- 
mately five  and  a  quarter  hours;  forty  seven  of  the 
hundred  and  twenty  have  a  five  hour  session,  fifteen  are 
content  with  less,  and  only  thirty  six  exceed  the  average.^ 
The  ofi&cial  school  day  at  Gary,  in  the  three  schools  under 
discussion,^  is  for  children  seven  hours — from  8:15  to 
4:15,  with  sixty  minutes  for  luncheon/  The  lengthened 
school  day  provides  the  additional  time  needed  for  the 
special  branches.  Meanwhile,  the  common  branches 
continue  on  the  whole  to  receive  as  much  time  at  Gary 
as  elsewhere.  Fifty  representative  cities'^  average  5,388 
hours  of  instruction  in  the  ordinary  studies,  as  compared 
wdth  5,048  hours  at  Gary,  a  total  difference  of  340  hours 
spread  over  eight  years.  The  three  R's  are  allotted 
3,904,  as  against  4,022  in  fifty  cities.     Gary's  departure 


^Table  X,  .\ppendix  D,  page  229. 

n^'able  XI,  Appendix  D,  page  229. 

'Beveridge  also  has  a  seven  hour  day,  but  in  the  other  schools  the  day  is 
six  hours. 

^Moreover,  the  playgrounds  at  Froebel,  Emerson,  and  Jefferson, 
and  the  g>Tnnasiuins  and  swimming  pools  at  Froebel  and  Emerson,  are 
open  until  five  o'clock. 

^Table  XII,  Appendix  D,  page  230. 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  59 

is  thus  almost  wholly  in  the  field  of  the  special  activi- 
ties; the  2,732  hours  gained  by  lengthening  the  school 
day  keep  the  children  off  the  streets  and  make  time  for 
physical  training,  shop  work,  drawing,  and  the  audi- 
torium. 

The  different  schools,  however,  show  considerable  de- 
viations from  the  foregoing  rankings  and  reported  time 
allotments.^  For  example,  the  average  allotment  to 
fourth  grade  reading  in  Froebel,  Emerson,  and  Jef- 
ferson during  the  spring  term  1915-16  was  292  minutes 
per  week.  All  classes  in  Jefferson  had  more;  all  in  Emer- 
son, less ;  in  Froebel  there  was  one  above  the  average  and 
three  below.  The  minimum  assignment,  150  minutes, 
goes  to  4A  classes  in  Emerson  and  Froebel,  and  the  maxi- 
mum, 450  minutes,  to  a  Froebel  4C.  Relatively  greater 
variations  occur  in  eighth  grade  geography.  One  class 
had  more,  and  four  had  less,  than  the  average  of  91 
minutes  per  week.  A  Froebel  8A  ha\ing  the  equivalent 
of  a  single  weekly  forty  minute  period,  and  an  Emerson 
8B  enjoying  five  such  periods,  represent  the  extremes. 
The  allotments  to  the  other  fundamental  studies  reveal 
similar  differences.  So  far  as  these  time  differences 
grow  out  of  a  conscious  effort  to  adjust  instruction  to 
the  needs  and  abihties  of  different  groups  of  children, 
they  are  profitable.  But  it  is  clear  that  not  infrequently 
they  arise  at  Gary — as  in  other  school  systems — from 
lack  of  proper  adjustment  or  from  the  caprice  of  Individ- 
ual  teachers. 
^Table  XIII,  Appendix  D,  page  232. 


6o 


THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 


We  have  been  occupied  up  to  this  point  with  the  ele- 
mentary course  of  study.  A  word  will  suffice  for  the 
high  schools. 

Gary  has  two  high  schools,  one  at  the  Froebel,  the 
other  at  the  Emerson  school,  the  buildings  and  equip- 
ment serving  simultaneously  elementary  school  and  high 
school  purposes.  The  attendance  totals  547  pupils,  of 
W'hom  331  enrolled  at  the  Emerson,  216  at  the  Froebel.^ 
The  programs  of  the  two  schools  follow  closely  the  uni- 
form state  course,^  which  does  not  difTer  materially  from 
the  ordinary  high  school  course  found  throughout  the 
country.  Emerson  offers  only  seven  units  of  work  in 
excess  of  the  minimium  state  requirements,  of  which  three 
units  are  in  foreign  languages;  Froebel  barely  reaches  the 
minimum.^  Despite  the  unusual  facilities  in  the  way 
of  shops  and  laboratories,  the  high  schools  do  not  offer 
to  high  school  boys  or  girls  more  than  a  single  year 
of   well    organized    instruction    in  the   industrial   and 

'Official  Gary  High  School  Enrollment,  1915-16 


SCHOOLS 

FIRST 
YEAR 

SECOND 
YEAR 

THIRD 
\'EAR 

FOURTH 
^-EAR 

TOTAL 

GRADUATES 
JUNE,  1916 

Emerson 
Froebel    . 

143 
130 

103 
37 

51 
32 

34 
17 

331 

216 

31 

16 

Total     . 

273 

140 

83 

51 

547* 

47 

*0ur  tabulation  on  the  basis  of  individual  record  cards  (Table  XXXI,  Appendix  D, 
page  251)  varies  slightly  from  this  report. 

^able  XTV,  Appendix  D,  page  234. 

^Table  XV,  Appendix  D,  page  235. 


Pm 


« 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  6i 

household  arts.  In  addition  to  the  conventional  work, 
there  is  a  commercial  course,  open  to  both  boys  and 
girls. 

Having  students  enough  to  justify  a  separate  high 
school,  does  Gary  do  well  to  use  the  same  building  and 
equipment  for  both  an  elementary  school  and  a  high 
school?  Something  can  be  said  on  both  sides  of  the 
question.  It  can  hardly  be  regarded  as  economical  in 
respect  to  space  or  money.  High  school  teachers,  seldom 
having  full  high  school  schedules,  are  assigned  to  ele- 
mentary school  classes.  Equipment  essential  to  high 
school  work  is  either  idle,  or  is  used  by  young  children, 
even  if  not  to  best  advantage.  Among  the  compen- 
sating gains,  however,  are  the  democratic  spirit  developed 
between  elementary  and  high  school  pupils,  the  familiar- 
ity of  elementary  pupils  with  high  school  opportunities, 
and  the  knowledge  which  high  school  teachers  acquire 
regarding  elementary  pupils,  their  methods  of  work,  and 
their  achievements. 

On  the  elementary  course  of  study  described  in  this 
chapter,  one  general  comment  naturally  suggests  itself. 
The  fear  has  not  infrequently  been  expressed  by  devotees 
of  traditional  education  that  modernism  in  education 
may  signify  merely  the  "practical,"  "utilitarian,"  "vo- 
cational," as  opposed  to  the  cultural  or  ideal.  The 
breadth  and  variety  of  the  Gary  elementary  curriculum 
ought  to  remove  this  apprehension ;  for  it  is  more  broadly 
and  variously  cultural  in  its  scope  than  any  merely  bookish 
curriculum  can  possibly  be.     It  contains  the  necessary 


62  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

instrumental  studies — writing,  reading,  spelling,  and 
arithmetic — as  well  as  the  traditional  cultural  subjects, 
geography,  history,  and  literature.  Science  and  indus- 
try add  further  opportunities  to  develop  the  child  and 
to  give  him  an  education  that  will  bring  him  into  contact 
with  life  at  all  its  vital  points. 


VI.    TEACHING  STAFF 


THE  program  described  in  the  preceding  chapter 
calls  for  (i)  grade  teachers,  (2)  an  unusual  num- 
ber of  specialized  teachers  to  take  charge  of  the 
departmentalized  subjects  and  special  activities  of  the 
elementary  schools,  and  (3)  high  school  teachers.  The 
total  number  of  teachers  employed  at  Gary  increased 
from  4  in  1906-7  to  147  in  1915-16.^ 

In  selecting  elementary  teachers,  the  Gary  authorities 
have  endeavored  to  procure  graduates  of  a  standard 
normal  school,  but  they  have  not  always  reached  this 
level.  Of  the  45  regular  elementary  teachers  in  service 
at  the  end  of  the  school  year  1915-16,  13  fell  short  in  this 
respect,  20  were  normal  school  graduates,  while  9  had 
attended  college  without  graduating  and  3  had  finished 
a   full   college  course.-     A   majority   of   the   less   well 


'Number  op  Teachers  Employed 


NUMBER    OF   TEACHERS    EMPLOYED    DURING: 

1906-7 

L907-8 

190&-9 

1909-10 

1910-11 

1911-12 

1912-13 

1913-14 

1914-15 

1915-16 

Men 
Women 

3 

1 

4 
11 

8 
24 

8 

40 

16 

78 

16 

89 

17 
84 

25 

101 

30 
120 

35 
112 

Total 

4 

15 

32 

48 

94 

105 

101 

126 

150 

147* 

•Includes  II  shopmen. 

Table  XVI,  Appendix  D,  page  236. 

63 


64  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

equipped  have  entered  the  staff  recently;  some  of 
them  are  local  high  school  graduates,  begirming  to  teach 
in  the  elementary  schools  with  little  professional  prepara- 
tion. In  so  far  as  the  staff  is  trained,  the  training  is 
that  obtainable  in  ordinary  normal  schools  throughout 
the  country.  The  12  kindergartners  are  a  more  homo- 
geneous group ;  all  have  had  the  equivalent  of  a  standard 
course,  that  is,  after  graduating  from  high  school  they 
have  had  at  least  two  years  of  specialized  training.^ 

As  has  been  pointed  out,  Gary  draws  no  hard  and  fast 
line  between  the  elementary  school  and  the  high  school. 
The  two  schools  are  housed  in  the  same  building,  and, 
although  regular  elementary  teachers  do  not  give  high 
school  instruction,  high  school  teachers  usually  instruct 
some  elementary  classes;  the  chemistry  teacher  takes 
grade  classes  in  chemistry,  the  physics  teacher,  grade 
classes  in  physics.  Of  the  26  regular  high  school  teach- 
ers, 19  have  completed  a  full  four  year  college  course  or 
more.  Of  the  7  with  non-standard  credentials,  2  hold 
degrees  from  small  colleges,  3  have  had  some  college  work, 
1  is  a  normal  school  graduate,  and  i,  although  never  go- 
ing beyond  the  high  school,  has  had  a  broad  business  ex- 
perience.^ A  majority  of  them  have  also  had  some  pro- 
fessional training  at  colleges  or  schools  of  education. 

In  addition  to  kindergarten,  regular  elementary  and 
high  school  teachers,  Gary  employs  50  special  teachers. 
The  teachers  of  handwork  and  nature  study  deal  only 

'Table  XVII,  Appendix  D,  page  237. 
^able  XVI,  Appendix  D,  page  236. 


TEACHING  STAFF  65 

with  elementary  children,  principally  of  the  lower  grades ; 
all  others — teachers  in  charge  of  auditorium  work  and 
expression,  music,  manual  training,  household  arts,  free- 
hand drawing,  mechanical  drawing,  and  physical  train- 
ing— instruct,  in  varying  proportions,  both  elementary 
and  high  school  pupils.  It  is  needless  to  discuss  in  detail 
the  training  of  these  special  teachers.  Suffice  it  to  say 
that,  with  few  exceptions,  they  are  well  fitted,  although 
there  are,  as  is  common  elsewhere,  surprising  differences 
in  the  length  and  the  character  of  the  preparation  of 
those  giving  the  same  kind  and  grade  of  instruction.^ 

Eleven  shopmen,  not  classified  as  teachers  by  the  Gary 
authorities,  complete  the  corps.  Engaged  on  general 
repair  and  construction,  such  as  forge,  foundry,  and 
plumbing,  they  were  chosen  primarily  on  the  basis  of 
trade  experience,  which  ranges  from  four  to  twenty  five 
years  ;^  practically  all  are  union  men. 

Besides  trained  teachers,  the  Gary  schools  utilize  high 
school  pupils  as  assistants  in  one  way  or  another.  In  the 
year  1915-16,  127  pupils  were  thus  used,  chiefly  in  the 
three  largest  schools,  Emerson,  Froebel,  and  Jefferson. 
Their  duties,  though  various,  are  mainly  routine;  they 
grade  papers,  prepare  material  for  younger  children,  tell 
stories,  play  games,  assist  pupils  over  difficulties,  keep 
the  class  register,  and  occasionally  take  charge  of  a  class 
and  give  instruction. 

As  a  rule,  Gary  employs  not  only  trained  but  experi- 

iTable  XVIII,  Appendix  D,  page  238. 
*Table  XIX,  Appendix  D,  page  239. 


66  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

enced  teachers.  Academic  and  professional  preparation 
being  equal,  preference  is  given  to  the  seasoned  instruc- 
tor. To  be  sure,  beginners  are  engaged,  but  probably 
not  in  greater  numbers  than  is  usual  elsewhere,  for  in 
most  large  cities  the  teaching  force — at  least,  of  the 
kindergarten  and  elementary  school — is  recruited  di- 
rectly from  the  local  training  school.  Of  the  132  teach- 
ers of  whom  we  have  record,  only  23,  or  17  per  cent., 
were  without  experience  when  first  employed^  and  not 
exceeding  6  of  these  beginners  were  engaged  in  any  one 
year.  Together,  the  132  had  had  an  average  prior  experi- 
ence of  five  years,  a  half  having  had  less  than  four  years, 
and  a  half  having  had  more.  Indeed,  if  the  Gary  author- 
ities have  erred,  it  is  on  the  side  of  employing  teachers  with 
too  much  classroom  experience  behind  them,  for  20 
per  cent,  of  the  staff  had  had  a  service  record  of  ten 
years  or  more  before  coming  to  Gary. 

Though  Gary  teachers  are  as  a  body  experienced,  they 
are  all  new  to  Gary.^  A  single  decade  measures  the 
length  of  the  service  of  the  oldest ;  less  than  half  of  them 
have  been  in  Gary  four  years,  and,  if  we  include  the  11 
who  have  been  there  less  than  a  year,  the  8  who  are 
completing  their  first  year,  and  the  ^t,  who  are  completing 
their  second  year,  40  per  cent,  may  be  called  newcomers. 
The  unusually  large  proportion  of  newcomers  is  a  con- 
sequence partly  of  the  recent  origin  and  rapid  growth  of 
the  city,  and  partly  of  the  frequency  of  resignations.    Ob- 

'Table  XX,  Appendix  D,  page  240. 
'Table  XXI,  Appendix  D,  page  241. 


TEACHING  STAFF  67 

viously  this  fact  must  be  taken  into  account  in  judging 
the  Gary  schools.  Teachers  so  recently  brought  to- 
gether from  many  different  sources  cannot  be  rapidly 
molded  into  a  unified  staff. 

The  annual  loss  is  unquestionably  heavy,  ranging 
from  14  to  23  per  cent,  of  the  entire  staff.  ^  How  this 
compares  with  that  of  school  systems  in  cities  similar  in 
size  and  character  we  do  not  know.  Whether  compara- 
tively high  or  low,  the  causes  operating  at  Gary  to  this 
end  are  apparently  the  same  as  elsewhere.  Of  the  losses 
between  191 2  and  19 16,  30  per  cent,  were  due  to  mar- 
riage, 27  per  cent,  to  taking  positions  in  other  systems,  5 
per  cent,  to  illness,  and  17  per  cent,  to  remaining  at 
home,  returning  to  school,  and  going  into  business,  while  2 1 
per  cent,  are  said  to  have  been  dropped  from  the  service. 

Teachers'  contracts  are  drawn  on  a  monthly  scale, 
with  ten  months  of  continuous  service  expected,  but  not 
guaranteed.^  For  convenience  in  computing  salaries,  we 
use  the  rate  for  a  ten  month  year.  The  principals  of 
the  Emerson  and  Froebel  schools  receive  $2,000  a  year, 
Jefferson  pays  $1,300,  and  Beveridge  $1,100;^  these 
salaries  include  regular  week  day  and  Saturday  service, 
but  there  is  extra  pay  for  night  and  summer  work.  None 
of  the  other  schools  has  a  principal,  although  there  is  a 
teacher  in  each  who  acts  as  principal  and  receives  an 
additional  $100  for  such  service  ($90  for  the  regular  day 

'Table  XXII,  Appendix  D,  page  242. 

^In  1913-14  the  regular  day  schools  were  in  session  only  nine  months. 

•Table  XXIII,  Appendix  D,  page  243. 


68  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

school  and  $io  for  the  Saturday  school).  This  addi- 
tional compensation  is  included  in  the  rate  at  which  such 
teachers  are  reported  to  be  employed. 

The  kindergartners  are  at  the  foot  of  the  salary  ladder. 
The  median  wage  is  $750,  with  salaries  varying  from 
$600  to  $950. 

Regular  elementary  teachers  fare  better,  their  median 
rate  being  $800.  Six  receive  the  minimum  salary,  $600 
a  year;  only  four  receive  as  much  as  Si, 000. 

Special  teachers  are  better  paid.  The  median  for 
the  group  rises  to  $900,  with  S600  at  the  lower  and  $1,200 
at  the  upper  extreme. 

The  annual  pay  of  regular  high  school  teachers  is  still 
higher,  the  median  mounting  to  $1,100,  more  by  $100 
than  the  salary  of  the  best  paid  elementary  teachers. 
The  range  is,  however,  wide,  salaries  running  from  $800 
to  $2,000,  with  five  receiving  $1,300  or  more. 

In  most  cases,  shopmen  receive  union  wages.  When 
these  are  reduced  to  a  ten  month  rate,  the  median  for 
the  group  is  Si, 000,  which  brings  them  next  in  salary  to 
the  regular  high  school  teachers.^ 

'The  salary  schedule  according  to  which  the  teachers  were  paid  in 
191 5- 1 6  is  as  follows:    grade  teachers 

J   FIRST  YE.\R    SECOND  YEAR   THIRD  YEAR   FOURTH  YEAR   FirTH  YEAR 
PER  MO.       PES  MO.       PER  MO.       PER  MO.       PER  MO. 

Class  A  $60.00 

Class  B  70.00  $7500  S80.00  S85.00        S  90.00 

Class  C  80.00  85.00  90.00  95-00  100.00 

Head  grade  teachers  are  paid  an  additional  Sio.oo  per  month.  Spe- 
cial teachers:  Appro.ximately  the  same  as  grade  teachers.  High  school 
teachers:  Minimum,  S75.00  per  month;  ma.ximum,  $130.00  per  month; 
annual  increase,  Sio.oo  per  month;  heads  of  departments,  S150.00  per 
month.  Auditorium  head  teachers:  An  assistant  principal  is  selected 
for  auditorium  work  and  is  paid  an  additional  salary  of  $10.00  per  month. 


TEACHING  STAFF  69 

Gary  teachers  have  unusual  opportunities  to  add  to 
their  regular  day  school  pay.  They  may  teach  Satur- 
days, receiving  one  twentieth  of  their  regular  monthly 
wage  per  day.  In  the  night  schools  they  can  earn  as 
much  as  $3  a  night.  During  the  summer  most  of  the 
shopmen  are  busy  with  repairs  and  construction,  and  the 
two  months'  summer  school  engages  at  full  pay  about 
one  third  of  the  staff.  Finally,  the  Sunday  school  gives 
employment  to  a  few. 

It  would  be  impossible  for  Gary  to  carry  on  these 
outside  activities  without  calling  heavily  on  regular 
day  school  teachers.  The  pay  schedule  shows  what  they 
may  earn  in  this  way.  For  example,  a  teacher  receiving 
a  regular  salary  of  $600  for  day  work  may  earn  in  a  single 
year  as  much  as  $330  more,  a  $900  teacher  may  earn  in  all 
$1,320,  a  $1,200  teacher,  $1,710,  and  a  $1,500  teacher, 
$2,100.^ 

AU  but  27  of  the  force  in  service  at  the  end  of  19 15-16 
did  work  in  addition  to  the  regular  day  school.^  Ninety 
seven  taught  also  on  Saturdays,  79  at  night,  and  49  in  the 
summer  school.  The  additional  work  of  27  was  confined 
to  Saturdays  and  of  18  to  the  night  schools.  But  30 
worked  both  Saturdays  and  at  night,  and  24,  Saturdays, 
at  night,  and  during  the  summer,  while  3  were  now  and 
then  on  Sunday  duty  besides. 

The  amount  of  extra  service  varies.  For  example,  83 
teachers,  exclusive  of  the  shopmen,  served  in  the  regular 

^Table  XXIV,  Appendix  D,  page  244. 
*Table  XXV,  Appendix  D,  page  245. 


70  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

day  school  the  full  200  days.  Of  these,  17  did  no  addi- 
tional work.^  The  extra  service  of  the  remaining  66 
ranged  from  4  to  132  days,  half  of  them  working  less  and 
half  working  more  than  19  days.  In  a  word,  these  66 
teachers  were  on  duty  during  19 15-16  the  equivalent  of 
not  less  than  eleven  months. 

The  pay  for  this  extra  service  materially  increases  the 
total  earnings  of  the  teachers.  To  illustrate:  The  aver- 
age regular  salary  of  the  13  high  school  instructors  serv- 
ing in  excess  of  200  days  was  $1,201;  their  total  income 
averaged  $264  higher,  or  $1,465.^  The  increment  from 
extra  work  averages  about  15  per  cent.,  but  there  are 
teachers  who  increase  their  incomes  by  as  much  as  40  to 
60  per  cent,  of  their  salaries.  Nevertheless,  in  making 
salary  comparisons,  these  additional  earnings  should 
not  be  regarded  as  a  part  of  the  Gary  salary  schedule. 

In  most  respects  the  conditions  of  service  that  obtain 
elsewhere  in  Indiana  prevail  at  Gary.  A  county  or  state 
certificate  is  required;  contracts  are  made  for  a  single 
year.  The  state  provides  a  pension  system,  which 
the  Gary  teachers,  however,  have  not  as  yet  accepted. 
No  allowance  is  made  by  the  state  for  sickness  or  other 
enforced  absence,  but  Gary  teachers  can  partially  re- 
coup themselves,  since  they  receive  the  difference  between 
their  own  salary  and  the  amount  paid  to  a  substitute. 

The  only  important  novelty  in  the  conditions  of  service 
at  Gary  is  the  length  of  the  school  day.     In  the  smaller 

^Table  XXVI,  Appendix  D ,  page  246. 
^Table  XXVII,  Appendix  D,  page  247. 


o 


TEACHING  STAFF  71 

schools  this  is  six  hours,  from  9  to  12  and  from  i  to  4. 
In  the  four  larger  schools  the  day  runs  from  8:15  to  4:15, 
less  an  hour  for  luncheon.  The  physical  training  teach- 
ers give  seven  hours  daily  to  instruction,  shopmen,  eight; 
all  other  teachers  give  six  hours  and  they  have  in  addition 
a  seventh  hour,  which  is  supposed  to  be  a.free  period,  but 
which  is  usually  devoted  to  the  making  of  records  and 
reports.  Thus  a  majority  of  the  regular  teachers  work 
seven  hours  a  day  at  school,  although  approximately  a 
third  of  them  are  excused,  on  request,  by  the  superin- 
tendent fiom  attendance  during  the  seventh  hour.  Of 
120  other  cities  scattered  through  the  country  having, 
like  Gary,  a  population  between  25,000  and  50,000,  the 
average  school  day  is  five  and  a  quarter  hours.  Eight  of 
the  120  have  a  six  hour  day;  one  runs  six  and  three  quarter 
hours.^  It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  where 
there  is  a  short  school  day,  teachers  as  a  rule  give  time 
after  school  to  records,  reports,  and  outside  duties,  mak- 
ing for  them  approximately  a  six  hour  day.  It  should 
also  be  noted  that  there  is  a  decided  movement  through- 
out the  country,  notably  in  New  York  and  New  Jersey, 
toward  lengthening  the  school  day  in  cities. 

Several  different  problems  are  involved  in  the  question 
of  the  length  of  the  school  day;  the  extended  use  of  the 
building  is  one  question,  the  interest  of  the  pupil  another 
question,  the  strain  upon  the  teacher  still  another. 
Financial  and  social  considerations  alike  recommend 
that  school  buildings  should  be  used  longer  each  day 

'See  Table  XI,  Aopendix  D,  page  229. 


72  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

than  is  now  the  case.  There  are  equally  valid  arguments 
for  a  lengthened  school  day  for  pupils,  especially  in  cities, 
provided,  of  course,  that,  as  at  Gary,  varied  activities 
of  a  non-bookish  character  are  provided.  Whether  a 
seven  hour  day  for  teachers  is  desirable  is  a  different 
matter.  Accurate  data  bearing  on  the  health  and  vigor  of 
teachers  working  seven  hours  a  day  are  not  available. 
If,  however,  one  may  trust  daily  observation  running 
through  several  months,  one  would  be  inclined  to  regard 
the  seven  hour  day,  particularly  when  teachers  have 
additional  night  work  and  Saturday  work,  as  of  doubt- 
ful \\'isdom.  It  leaves  too  little  energy  for  the  outside 
interests  which  ought  to  refresh  and  invigorate  the  daily 
lesson;  and  it  probably  tends  to  a  mechanical  handling  of 
classroom  work.  There  is,  however,  no  reason  why  the 
school  building  and  the  pupil  should  not  have  longer 
hours  without  equally  increasing  the  length  of  the  teach- 
er's day.  In  fact,  one  advantage  of  the  Gary  organiza- 
tion is  that  the  day  for  the  building  may  be  one  thing, 
that  for  pupils  another,  and  that  for  teachers  still  another. 
Indeed,  the  teacher's  day  can  be  made  of  any  length 
whatsoever,  though,  of  course,  the  shorter  the  teacher's 
day,  the  more  teachers  are  required  and  hence  the  larger 
the  budget  for  teachers'  salaries,  or  the  smaller  the  salary 
per  teacher. 


VII.     CLASSROOM  INSTRUCTION* 

WE  HAVE  now  discussed  the  main  factors  that 
determine  the  content  and  quality  of  classroom 
instruction — organization,  supervision,  course 
of  study,  teaching  stafif.  We  learned  that  the  course  of 
study  is,  in  the  first  instance,  necessarily  that  outlined 
by  the  state;  that  the  members  of  the  teaching  staff 
do  not  differ  essentially  in  education,  training,  and  ex- 
perience from  the  corresponding  types  of  teacher  in 
other  systems;  finally,  that,  while  the  Gary  system  is 
devoted  to  a  modern  conception  of  education,  supervi- 
sion has  been  too  uncertain  to  mold  the  teaching  staff  into 
an  effective  organ  for  concerted  effort  toward  its  achieve- 
ment. 

A  moment's  consideration  will,  however,  show  that 
under  even  the  most  favorable  conditions  an  entire 
school  system  can  only  gradually  promote  radical  reform 
in  the  substance  and  manner  of  classroom  instruction. 


^This  chapter  deals  with  the  teaching  of  reading,  composition,  spelling, 
arithmetic,  geography,  and  history  in  the  elementary  schools,  and  with 
English,  French,  German,  mathematics,  Latin,  and  history  in  the  high 
schools;  science,  shop  work,  etc.,  are  dealt  with  in  special  chapters  and 
special  reports. 

A  tabular  statement  showing  the  amount  of  observation  of  classes  on 
which  the  present  chapter  is  based  is  given  in  Appendix  A,  page  210. 

73 


74  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

The  course  of  study  may  indeed  be  expressed  in 
terms  so  general  that  large  leeway  is  left  to  the  grade 
teacher;  principal  and  supervisors  may  be  favorable  to 
innovation ;  the  fact  remains  that  at  this  day  the  conven- 
tional training  of  the  teachers  and  the  conventional 
character  of  available  textbooks  in  most  subjects,  gen- 
erally speaking,  handicap  wide  departure  by  an  entire 
system  from  established  practices. 

In  the  case  of  Gary,  certain  special  factors  already 
mentioned  should  also  be  taken  into  account.  The 
population  being  foreign,  the  children  come  in  large 
numbers  from  homes  where  no  English  or  very  poor 
English  is  spoken;  the  increase  in  population  is  taking 
place  so  rapidly  that  there  is  a  steady  infiltration  into 
the  schools  of  new  and  crude,  even  though  ultimately 
promising,  material;  finally,  the  teaching  staff,  expanded 
to  meet  the  pressure  described,  is  composed  of  teachers 
of  such  varied  training  and  experience  that  unity  of 
purpose  is  extremely  difficult  to  obtain. 

One  gathers  the  impression  that,  carried  along  by  its 
splendid  conception  of  public  education  but  misled, 
perhaps,  by  the  ease  with  which  an  adequate  material 
embodiment  was  so  swiftly  attained  in  the  Froebel  and 
Emerson  plants,  Gary  failed  to  appreciate  the  extreme 
difficulty  of  converting  new  educational  principles  into 
new  educational  practice.  It  would  be  both  unjust  and 
unwise  to  make  too  much  of  this  error,  for  it  does  not 
disprove  the  fundamental  soundness  of  the  scheme  or 
destroy  its  stimulating  influence  on  public  education. 


CLASSROOM  INSTRUCTION  75 

The  truth  is  that  anything  Hke  general  success  was  at 
the  outset  impossible,  because  of  the  lack  of  proper  tools 
and  proper  agents.  Had  this  been  clearly  perceived, 
doubtless  details  would  have  been  more  carefully  watched 
and  thus  a  larger  measure  of  practical  success  would 
undoubtedly  have  been  attained.  In  the  present 
and  succeeding  chapters  the  actual  teaching  at  Gary 
will  be  described  in  the  effort  to  present  an  objective 
account  of  the  instruction  offered,  as  respects  both 
content  and  quality.  In  view  of  the  fact,  however, 
that  serious  defects  will  be  pointed  out,  the  authors 
drop  this  word  of  caution  lest  the  real  scope,  courage,  and 
intelligence  of  the  Gary  vision  be  obscured  by  the  errors 
made  in  the  first  attempts  toward  its  realization. 

We  have  said  that  thoroughgoing  reform  can  proceed 
only  as  a  new  body  of  teaching  material  is  developed  and 
teachers  of  a  new  type  are  trained.  Fortunately,  the 
situation  has  in  recent  years  been  ameliorated  by  the  dif- 
fusion among  teachers  of  sounder  ideas  as  to  values  and 
methods  and  by  the  publication  of  a  large  body  of  supple- 
mentary school  texts  in  the  principal  classroom  subjects. 
Even  teachers  trained  in  the  most  cut  and  dried  fashion 
have  in  large  numbers  been  aroused  to  the  futility  of 
abstract  drill  in  grammar  and  arithmetic  and  to  the  use- 
lessness  of  a  mechanical  grind  in  geography  and  history; 
and  though  the  textbooks  in  common  use  continue  to 
contain  much  irrelevant,  uninteresting,  and  indigestible 
detail,  the  intelligent  and  resourceful  teacher  is  not 
usually  so  strictly  and  unsympathetically  "supervised" 


76  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

that  she  is  kept  from  supplementing  or  partly  supplant- 
ing the  textbook  by  utilizing  materials  and  paraphernalia 
rich  in  content  and  in  emotional  value.  While,  as  we 
have  said,  it  would  be  unfair  at  this  stage  to  expect  any 
school  system  to  organize  its  classroom  instruction  on  a 
consistently  modern  basis,  it  is  entirely  fair  to  demand 
that  the  formal  methods  and  sterile  material  of  a  past 
generation  should  be  noticeably  relieved  by  the  intro- 
duction of  a  fresher  spirit  and  by  the  use  of  concrete 
and  fertile  subject  matter. 

In  so  far  as  classroom  instruction  is  concerned,  the 
Gary  schools  show  the  confusion  ine\itably  incident  to 
transition,  but  aggravated  unquestionably  by  ineffec- 
tiveness of  central  control.  The  conventional  school 
framework  has  been  shattered;  new  ends,  new  activities 
have  been  freely  introduced;  directly  and  indirectly,  the 
inadequacy  or  unsoundness  of  certain  common  school 
aims  has  been  emphasized.  Self-control,  initiative,  re- 
sourcefulness have  been  very  properly  set  up  as  essential 
characteristics  of  training  for  life  in  a  democratic  so- 
ciety. Unfortunately,  many  of  the  teachers  have  not 
been  at  Gary  long  enough  to  catch  the  spirit;  some  who 
sympathize  with  its  spirit  have  not  been  effectively  as- 
sisted to  abandon  or  modify  their  former  habits;  in  con- 
sequence, despite  some  excellent  work,  which  we  do  not 
overlook,  many  teachers  at  Gary  are  probably  not  doing 
so  well  as  they  have  previously  done  under  other  condi- 
tions. 

These  statements  are  particularly  true  of  the  regular 


CLASSROOM  INSTRUCTION  77 

primary  teachers.  They  devote  two  hours  daily  to 
work  in  the  three  R's,  but  departmentalization  tends 
in  a  measure  to  interfere  with  the  direct  use  of  literature, 
science,  and  games  as  means  of  making  the  three  R's  less 
formal  and  more  appealing.  The  danger — never  far 
distant — that  the  work  of  the  primary  teacher  will  be 
technical  and  mechanical  is  therefore  increased  at 
Gary.  A  teacher  might,  of  course,  even  under  this 
organization,  so  familiarize  herself  with  what  her  pupils 
are  doing  in  the  special  branches  that  she  would  be  able 
to  bring  what  they  have  learned  in  them  to  bear  upon 
the  mastery  of  the  regular  studies.  Most  of  those  obser- 
ved were  not  doing  so.  Primary  instruction  too  rarely 
radiated  from  a  central  topic,  from  which  were  derived 
the  materials  for  reading,  spelling,  language,  arithmetic, 
handwork,  dramatization,  and  even  science  and  music, 
each  portion  thus  reenforcing  every  other  part;  it  was 
more  apt  to  be  handled  in  separate  compartments, 
arithmetic,  language,  reading  being  more  or  less  inde- 
pendent of  one  another,  with  the  result  that  m.uch  of 
the  primary  teaching  was  mechanical  and  slow.  This 
was  not,  be  it  repeated,  universally  the  case;  but  it  was 
the  rule,  rather  than  the  exception. 

Take  reading  for  an  example.  Some  excellent  in- 
struction in  beginning  classes  was  observed.  Appropri- 
ate stories  about  familiar  objects  were  developed  by  the 
teachers  and  written  on  the  blackboard  for  the  children 
to  read;  phrase  reading  and  natural  expression  received 
attention;  the  meaning  of  the  new  words  selected  for 


78  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

mastery  was  conveyed  through  the  use  of  the  children's 
experiences,  real  objects,  picture  cards,  and  action;  and 
well  directed  repetition  through  the  use  of  the  black- 
board and  pictiire  word  cards  pressed  home  the  desired 
word  image.  Such  teaching  represents  the  occasional 
"high  points."  More  commonly  appropriate  prepara- 
tory work  was  slighted;  inadequate  emphasis  was  given 
to  the  meaning  of  new  words  and  to  the  development  of  a 
well  chosen  reading  vocabulary;  the  children  imitated 
the  standard  of  expression  set  by  the  teacher  and  under 
such  conditions  the  reading  became  mere  word  naming. 

Of  the  reading  heard  in  the  upper  primary  grades, 
some  of  it  was  good,  but  in  the  main  it  ranged  from  ordi- 
nary to  poor.  The  selections  were  usually  excellent, 
comprising  the  best  of  myths,  fairy  tales,  fables,  folk- 
lore, poems,  and  descriptive  narrations  of  famous  events 
and  characters — that  is,  the  best  availacble  material  had 
been  selected,  but  the  teaching  technique  was  often  seri- 
ously at  fault.  The  pupils  of  a  room  were,  as  a  rule, 
divided  into  two  sections,  one  reciting,  while  the  other 
did  seat  or  board  work.  The  section  engaged  in  reading 
occupied  kindergarten  chairs  about  the  teacher.  The 
children  had  seldom  made  any  preparation;  seldom  did 
the  teacher  ask  the  subject  of  the  lesson  or  seek  to  bring 
out  the  main  theme.  She  merely  directed  the  children 
to  prepare  silently  the  first  sentence  or  paragraph.  On 
the  completion  of  this  task,  the  pupils  raised  their  hands; 
thereupon  a  pupil  began.  The  teacher  might  ask  a  ques- 
tion to  introduce  the  next  story  or  paragraph,  but  more 


CLASSROOM  INSTRUCTION  70 

frequently  she  called  upon  a  child  to  read  on;  and  there- 
after the  exercises  became  sight  work.  If  pronuncia- 
tion became  too  bad,  the  teacher  might  write  the  words 
upon  the  blackboard  for  drill.  Little  attention  was 
devoted  to  meaning  or  use.  Only  once  in  the  classes 
observed  were  children  required  to  re-tell  the  story  or  to 
summarize  the  main  points  of  the  narration  after  the 
reading.  Classes  were  usually  dismissed  without  as- 
signments, and  even  when  assignments  were  made 
the  teacher  did  not  regularly  give  suggestions  as  to  the 
preparation  of  the  new  lesson.  The  work  was  too  fre- 
quently characterized  by  Hstlessness  and  indifference; 
after  the  first  few  minutes  of  the  period  only  part  of  the 
class  appeared  to  attend  to  the  work  in  hand. 

After  reading,  the  time  remaining  to  the  regular  pri- 
mary teachers  is  taken  up  mostly  with  spelling,  writing, 
and  arithmetic.  In  spelling,  common  words  chosen  by 
the  teacher  from  the  daily  Hfe  of  the  children  and  from 
their  current  school  work  were  emphasized,  and  well 
selected  hsts  were  also  suppHed  by  the  primary  super- 
visor. Patience  was  exhibited  in  drilling  children 
in  the  number  combinations  and  in  the  fundamental 
processes.  No  small  part  of  the  drill  in  these  subjects 
was  carried  on  by  helpers — children  from  the  sixth, 
seventh,  and  eighth  grades.  By  way  of  creating  inter- 
est in  drill,  competitive  de\'ices  were  freely  employed. 
For  example,  a  competitive  game  was  thus  made  of  spell- 
ing: The  teacher  wrote  the  words  on  the  blackboard — ■ 
"snow,"  "cow,"  "foreign,"  etc.    After  the  children  had 


8o  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

studied  these  for  a  moment,  the  teacher  called  by  turns, 
from  the  two  sides  into  which  the  class  had  been  divided, 
upon  the  children,  who  indicated  by  raising  the  hand 
that  they  were  ready.  The  pupil  signaled  took  his  place 
before  the  class,  with  his  back  to  the  blackboard,  and 
endeavored  to  pronounce  and  spell  each  of  the  words  of 
the  lists.  The  side  which  had  the  greater  number  of 
successes  to  its  credit  won  the  contest.  The  difficulty 
with  these  competitive  devices  is  that  the  same  aggres- 
sive children  were  always  in  evidence,  while  the  timid 
and  the  children  who  are  probably  in  greatest  need 
of  individual  attention  kept  to  their  seats.  Little  was 
done  toward  using  the  more  recently  contrived  meth- 
ods for  the  teaching  of  primary  spelling  or  primary  arith- 
metic. 

In  the  middle  and  upper  grades  some  efforts  to  vitalize 
arithmetic  were  observed.  To  make  the  topic  of  stocks 
and  bonds  real,  an  upper  grade  teacher  organized  his  class 
into  a  joint  stock  company  for  the  time  being.  There  is 
also  displayed  in  the  hall  of  Emerson  some  work  showing 
the  application  of  percentage  to  baseball  club  standings, 
and  a  graph  of  the  temperature  of  a  schoolroom  at  dif- 
ferent hours  of  the  day.  But  for  the  most  part,  in  these 
grades,  the  best  teaching  of  arithmetic  seen  was  of 
the  old-fashioned  sort,  where  children  are  held  rigor- 
ously to  a  mastery  of  processes  and  to  the  solution  and 
explanation  of  problems  of  every  conceivable  kind.  Few 
signs  of  the  new  arithmetic  were  noted.  For  example, 
two  middle  grade  classes  were  learning  liquid  measure. 


CLASSROOM  INSTRUCTION  8i 

In  the  one,  the  teacher  exhibited  a  gill,  a  pint,  a  quart,  a 
half  gallon,  and  a  gallon  measure.  But  there  was  noth- 
ing for  the  children  to  measure;  they  merely  looked  at 
the  measures,  observing  their  relative  sizes.  In  the 
second  class,  the  table  of  hquid  measures  was  presented 
altogether  as  something  to  be  memorized  from  the  book. 
There  were  no  measures  for  the  children  to  handle  and 
compare,  nothing  to  measure,  no  appeal  to  experience, 
no  mention  of  use. 

In  the  higher  grades  a  few  teachers  were  doing  well 
in  reading.  The  selections,  generally  of  excellent  char- 
acter, were  studied  seriously.  Interpretive  discussion 
preceded  oral  reading.  Appreciation  and  taste  were 
conscious  objects  of  the  instruction,  and  the  selections 
were  employed  to  present  in  concrete  form  the  larger 
ideals  of  successful  personal  and  community  Hving.  But 
the  bulk  of  the  reading  in  both  the  middle  and  upper 
grades  was  not  of  high  quahty.  As  in  the  primary  grades, 
the  pupils  were  too  often  listless  and  indifferent. 

Periods  devoted  to  history  and  geography  were  usually 
divided  equally  between  so-called  study — a  form  of  silent 
reading — and  recitation.  There  was  no  supervised  study. 
Lessons  were  invariably  assigned  by  pages  or  by  general 
subject,  mostly  without  comment  by  the  teacher.  The 
children  read  over  the  assignments  chiefly  with  a  view  to 
finding  the  answers  to  the  questions  printed  at  the  end  of 
the  section.  At  the  end  of  the  allotted  study  period,  the 
recitation  began.  The  teacher,  with  book  in  hand,  put 
seriatim  the  above  mentioned  questions,  occasionally  add-. 


82  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

ing  one  or  more  on  her  own  initiative.  For  example,  if  in 
history  -J '  What  was  Jefferson's  purpose  in  securing  the  pass- 
age of  the  Embargo  Act?"  "What  was  the  Embargo 
Act?"etc.  Or  in  geography:  "  In  what  part  of  the  United 
States  is  New  England?"  "Name  the  states."  "Which 
state  is  largest?"  etc.  The  answers  of  the  children  were 
brief  and  deficient  in  detail;  this,  whether  they  remembered 
for  the  moment  what  the  text  contained  or  whether 
they  read  the  answers  from  the  open  books  before  them. 
The  teacher  usually  added  very  little;  there  was  little 
or  no  class  discussion,  outside  reading  was  seldom  re- 
quired. Some  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  grade  geography 
and  history,  and  almost  all  that  of  the  middle  grades,  was 
indeed  little  more  than  a  sight  reading  exercise. 

As  in  the  primary  grades  there  was  usually  in  the  middle 
and  upper  grades  too  little  connection  between  the  differ- 
ent parts  of  a  pupil's  daily  work.  In  part,  this  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  in  the  higher  grades  the  "fundamentals"  are 
sometimes  distributed  among  several  teachers.  Making 
clear  to  children  the  cross  relations  existing  between 
studies  is  nowhere  easy,  and  departmentalization  rather 
increases  the  difficulty  at  Gary.  But  more  could  be  accom- 
plished than  is  now  attempted.  The  teach'ng  of  arith- 
metic, for  example,  could  take  more  account  of  what  is 
going  on  in  the  laboratories,  the  shops,  the  cooking  and 
sewing  rooms;  the  influence  of  geography  upon  history 
could  be  more  frequently  pointed  out.  The  main  evi- 
dences of  correlation  noted  were  the  effort  to  bring  into 
the  spelling  lesson  words  common  to  the  special  and 


CLASSROOIM  INSTRUCTION  83 

practical  activities;  and  a  similar  and  sometimes  remark- 
ably successful  effort  to  draw  composition  themes  from 
the  shops,  the  laboratories,  and  the  gymnasium  or  play- 
ground. A  really  admirable  paper  on  swimming,  in 
which  abundant  material  was  systematically  organized 
and  clearly  presented,  is  a  case  in  point. 

The  generally  meager  and  formal  character  of  the  class- 
room instruction  may  be  in  part  due  to  the  assumption 
that  exercises  in  shops  and  laboratories,  reading  in  con- 
nection with  science,  history,  and  industry  will  supply 
the  vital  elements  which  mere  drill  omits.  To  what 
extent  this  is  the  case  will  appear  in  the  chapters  dealing 
with  the  activities  in  question,  and  in  the  chapter  de- 
scribing the  objective  tests  designed  to  measure  skill  in 
reading,  spelling,  arithmetic,  and  composition. 

In  a  measure,  excessive  formality  in  regular  class- 
room work  may  arise  from  the  theory  that  an  application 
teacher  is  provided,  whose  special  concern  it  is  to  assist 
backward  pupils  and  to  place  "before  the  cliildren  real 
problems  of  the  tjpe  that  the  world  of  industry,  busi- 
ness, and  citizenship  will  place  before  them  when  they 
leave  school."  Without  raising  any  question  as  to  the 
wisdom  of  divorcing  the  child's  learning  of  fundamental 
processes  from  the  apphcation  of  those  processes,  the 
facts  at  Gary  do  not  bear  out  the  theory  of  a  separate 
application  teacher.  There  were  only  four  application 
teachers  in  the  system  during  the  spring  term  191 6,  of 
whom  one  gave  regular  departmental  instruction,  while 
the  remaining  three  confined  their  efforts  to  the  lower 


84  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

middle  and  primary  grades.  Observation  of  the  work  re- 
vealed nothing  beyond  the  same  kind  of  formal  drill  upon 
elements  and  processes  that  was  observed  in  regular 
classes.  Moreover,  application  teachers  are  handicapped 
by  not  knowing  intimately  the  precise  ground  covered 
by  the  class  teacher  and  the  particular  difficulties  of 
the  children  in  hand.  The  same  amount  of  time  could 
certainly  be  employed  to  better  advantage  in  regular 
work  of  proper  type. 

It  is  not  easy  to  make  out  how  classroom  instruction 
as  a  whole  is  affected  by  departmentalization.  In  the 
earlier  grades  excessive  departmentalization  may  tend 
to  separate  into  independent  teaching  units  subjects 
which  at  that  stage  might  better  be  presented  by  one 
teacher,  constantly  solicitous  to  connect  activities  one 
with  another.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  doubtful  whether 
in  the  middle  and  upper  grades  departmentalization  is 
complete  enough  to  procure  real  continuity  in  the  teach- 
ing of  the  regular  classroom  studies.  For  in  these  grades 
pupils  change  teachers  in  the  fundamental  subjects  on 
advancing  from  the  third  to  the  fourth  grade,  and  also 
on  passing  from  the  sixth  to  the  seventh.  Unquestion- 
ably, the  Gary  t}^e  of  program  requires  more  depart- 
mental teaching  than  the  conventional  school,  but  efi&- 
cient  supervision  and  careful  organization  can  alone 
secure  for  the  pupil  the  advantages  inherent  in  it. 

Of  the  high  school  subjects,  no  departure  from  conven- 
tional handling  was  observed  in  mathematics.  In  the 
Emerson  school  the  teacher  of  Latin  had  undertaken 


f^ 


m 


CLASSROOM  INSTRUCTION  85 

to  relate  the  instruction  in  Latin  to  English  and  to  every- 
day life  and  her  efforts  unquestionably  aroused  en- 
thusiastic interest  on  the  part  of  her  pupils.  In  both 
schools,  the  spoken  use  of  French  and  German  was 
stressed;  and  general  history  was  taught  with  conscious 
reference  to  the  requirements  of  citizenship.  But  much 
the  most  important  novelty  was  the  work  in  English 
composition,  already  alluded  to  above. 

Instead  of  short  daily  or  weekly  themes,  an  entire 
term  was  concentrated  upon  a  single  effort.  The  work 
was  done  not  hurriedly  at  home,  but  deliberately  at 
school.  All  the  steps  necessary  to  successful  writing 
were  taken  in  consultation  with  and  under  the  direction 
of  the  teacher.  A  practical  atmosphere  surrounded 
the  work,  and  it  was  executed  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the 
spirit  of  the  professional  writer.  Free  choice  of  topics 
was  permitted,  but  these  were  carefully  canvassed  in 
order  to  decide  whether  they  were  of  sufficient  general 
interest,  timely,  and  worth  while.  Pupils  were  taught 
how  to  assemble  data,  how  to  observe,  how  to  use  refer- 
ence books  and  the  Ubrary,  and  how  to  take,  keep,  and 
arrange  notes.  With  the  preliminaries  out  of  the  way, 
the  original  outline  was  revised  for  the  writing.  The 
first  draft  was  freely  made,  without  too  much  regard 
to  choice  of  words,  form,  or  organization.  The  teacher 
reviewed  this  draft  with  the  pupil,  leading  him  to  discover 
for  himself  its  weak  places  and  discussing  with  him  ways 
to  improve  them,  leaving  him  to  make  the  needed  revi- 
sions.   This  procedure  was  repeated  again  and  again. 


86  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

The  outcome  was  an  elaborate  essay  into  which  the  pupil 
had  put  himself  and  from  the  doing  of  which  he  had  de- 
rived real  training. 

High  school  teaching  was  unfavorably  affected  by  the 
practice  of  placing  in  one  class  pupils  of  different  high 
school  grades — a  necessary  expedient  in  the  small  high 
school.  The  tendency  was  marked  in  the  special 
studies  and  activities;  somewhat  less  so  in  the  old  line 
high  school  disciplines.  Commercial  classes  almost 
always  comprised  pupils  from  each  of  the  four  high 
school  years,  special  students  of  uncertain  preparation, 
and  even  eighth  grade  children.  To  add  to  instruc- 
tional difficulties,  this  promiscuous  group  usually  pur- 
sued typewriting,  stenography,  and  bookkeeping,  all 
at  the  same  time,  under  a  single  teacher.  Mathe- 
matics classes  were  frequently  made  up  of  pupils  from 
three  different  high  school  years;  at  times  all  took  the 
same  kind  and  grade  of  instruction;  again  each  group  had 
different  work — for  example,  arithmetic  and  solid  ge- 
ometry, first  and  second  term  algebra.  The  same  mix- 
ture of  pupils  from  the  different  high  school  years  oc- 
curred in  Latin,  modern  languages,  English  and  history. 
These  promiscuous  groupings  and  combinations  are  ac- 
counted for  on  the  grounds  of  irregularity  and  economy. 

The  situation  at  Gary  as  regards  instruction  is  thus  con- 
fused. The  newness  of  the  city  and  of  the  enterprise  and 
the  ambitious  scale  on  which  the  schools  are  projected  not 
only  account  for  some  of  the  defects  pointed  out,  but  ought 
in  fairness  to  be  regarded  as  in  some  measure  extenuating 


CLASSROOM  INSTRUCTION  87 

them.  It  is,  nevertheless,  clear  that,  so  far  as  the  modern 
school  involves  the  ehmination  of  obsolete  material  and  the 
vital  handling  of  all  material  in  the  usual  classroom  sub- 
jects, Gary's  contribution  is  not  considerable.  The  mod- 
ern attitude  is  indeed  encountered  here  and  there  in 
almost  every  subject,  but,  while  heartily  encouraged,  it 
is  still  exceptional  and  individual  rather  than  character- 
istic and  general.  Under  existing  conditions  the  absence 
of  efficient  supervision  cuts  both  ways.  Teachers  with 
ideas — such  as  the  teacher  of  Enghsh  whose  work  is 
described  above — are  not  hampered  by  a  supervisor  who 
has  different  notions;  on  the  other  hand,  less  competent 
instructors  working  amidst  difficult  conditions  are  also 
left  to  their  own  devices.  In  the  main,  therefore,  the 
teaching  is  of  ordinary  type,  ineffectually  controlled. 
There  is  nothing  in  the  Gary  plan  that  requires  this; 
there  is  no  reason  why  a  school  of  the  Gary  type  should 
not  be  well  organized,  well  administered,  and  well  super- 
vised. Indeed,  as  we  have  already  urged,  the  enrichment 
of  school  life  inevitably  results  in  complications  which 
give  added  importance  to  good  organization,  good  admin- 
istration, and  good  super\dsion. 


VIII.     CLASSROOM  TESTS^ 

THE  judgments  expressed  in  the  preceding  chapter 
embody  the  results  of  prolonged  and  impartial 
observation;  nevertheless,  it  is  perfectly  fair  to 
say  of  them  that,  after  all,  they  represent  opinion  only. 
Some  day,  let  us  hope,  it  may  be  possible  to  replace  such 
observations  fully  by  measurements  of  an  objective  char- 
acter. At  the  present  time,  expert  opinion  based  upon 
inspection  is  in  many  respects  our  only  means  of  estimat- 
ing the  value  of  educational  procedure.  In  certain  of 
the  fundamental  subjects^ — e.  g.,  handwriting,  spelling, 
arithmetic,  composition,  and  reading — we  are,  however, 
in  position  to  measure  performance  by  means  of  objec- 
tive tests;  and  in  these  subjects  tests  were  given  in  the 
four  larger  Gary  schools — Froebel,  Emerson,  Jefferson, 
and  Beveridge.  In  recent  years  these  tests  have  been 
widely  used.  Unfortunately,  however,  they  have  not 
always  been  apphed  with  equal  care  or  under  exactly 
the  same  conditions.  In  consequence,  for  purposes  of 
comparison  the  results  obtained  cannot  usually  be  taken 

ipor  detailed  account,  see  report  on  Measurement  of  Classroom  Prod- 
ucts, by  Stuart  A.  Courtis. 

^Practical  tests  were  also  given  in  shop  work,  household  arts,  physical 
training,  and  the  sciences.  These  are  discussed  in  the  chapters  dealing 
with  the  respective  subjects. 


CLASSROOM  TESTS  89 

at  their  face  value.  Moreover,  there  is  in  most  subjects 
as  yet  no  general  agreement  as  to  what  constitutes  satis- 
factory performance.  Comparison  should  therefore  be 
made  with  extreme  hesitation,  except  in  the  simple 
handwriting,  spelling,  arithmetic,  and  reading  tests 
for  which  something  like  a  standard  has  been  derived 
from  scores  made  by  large  numbers  of  children.  The 
few  comparisons  employed  in  this  chapter  are  of  this 
kind. 

Handwriting  may  be  tested  in  several  ways.  A  child 
may  be  asked  to  do  his  "best,"  with  the  result  that  he 
achieves  something  quite  different  from  his  usual  writing; 
or  he  may  be  left  free  to  determine  for  himself  the  rate 
and  quality  of  his  writing — i.e.,  to  exercise  his  "free 
choice";  or  he  may  be  called  on  to  write  a  dictated  pas- 
sage— in  which  case  the  quality  of  the  writing  is  condi- 
tioned by  the  rate  at  which  the  passage  is  dictated. 
Finally,  specimens  of  handwriting  may  be  secured  from 
papers  written  for  other  purposes — a  composition  or  an 
essay,  for  example,  written  by  the  child  without  knowl- 
edge that  it  may  be  used  as  the  basis  for  a  judgment  on 
the  quality  of  his  handwriting.  It  is  obvious  that  the 
various  specimens  of  a  single  pupil's  handwriting  thus 
procured  may  differ  considerably  in  merit  At  Gary 
no  effort  was  made  to  procure  samples  of  a  child's  "best " ; 
but  the  remaining  three  methods  were  employed,  i.  e., 
the  child  wrote  a  specimen  as  he  pleased,  he  wrote  from 
dictation,  and  specimens  were  obtained  from  composi- 
tions. 


90  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

Between  the  average  specimens  taken  from  the  compo- 
sitions of  eighth  grade  pupils  and  average  specimens 
taken  from  the  "  free  choice  "  test,  in  which  children 
write  as  they  please,  there  is  practically  no  difference  at 
all.  Figure  9  represents  this  characteristic  8th  grade 
product.  That  is,  of  the  children  in  the  last  year  of  the 
elementary  schools  of  Gary,  half  write  as  well  as  or 
better  than  the  sample  given  in  Figure  9,^  and  half 
write  less  well  than  this  sample. 

A  comparison  of  the  results  obtained  in  successive 
grades  shows  that  pupils  learn  to  write  faster  without 
learning  to  write  much  better  as  they  go  forward  through 
the  grades.  (Figure  10.)-  Comparison  with  the  results 
of  similar  tests  in  other  cities  must,  of  course,  be  made 
with  caution,  since  the  methods  employed  are  so  new 
and  the  factors  to  be  controlled  so  many  that  different 
situations  are  not  strictly  comparable.  With  this 
quahfication,  it  is  perhaps  still  worth  noting  that,  on  the 
whole,  when  compared  with  those  of  other  cities,  Gary 
results  in  the  free  choice  writing  test  are  lower  in  quaUty. 
(Figure  10.)  Apparently,  the  Gary  children  write 
more  freely  than  other  children,  but  pay  less  attention  to 
the  quality  of  their  work.  On  these  points  the  three 
different  tests  practically  agree  (Figure  11).^  And  no 
clear  difference  is  to  be  made  out  as  between  the  quality 
of  the  handwriting  m  the  various  schools  at  Gary,  that 

'See  page  91. 
^See  page  92. 
'See  page  93. 


91 


92  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

is,  there  is  no  certain  evidence  that  one  school  does  better 
or  worse  than  another. 

Spelling,  like  handwriting,  was  measured  in  three  dif- 
ferent ways.  Carefully  selected  hsts  of  words  were 
used  to  test  the  pupil's  ability  to  spell  disconnected 
words — much  as  an  old-fashioned  spelling  lesson  was 
conducted;  next,  sentences  were  dictated  at  a  definite 
rate  so  as  to  compel  children  to  write  without  giving 
them  too  much  time  to  think  of  spelling;  finally,  their 

Figure  io 
Comparatrt;  Scores  in  the  Free  Choice  Test 
HANDWRITING 

''"^'■'^^*^''"  /    AVERAGE  56  AmfiON  CITIES 

so 

40 
30- 
201 


10 


7iGARY 


RATC 


no       120       130 


ItTTERa     PER    niNUTE 

composition  papers  were  marked  as  exercises  in  spelling. 
The  conclusion  reached  as  to  the  ability  of  Gary  school 
children  as  spellers  rests  thus  on  three  distinct  types  of 
objective  evidence. 


CLASSROOM  TESTS  93 

The  list  tests  are  so  constructed  that  the  words  given, 
say,  to  the  fifth  grade  are  for  that  grade  approximately 
as  difficult  as  are  the  words  given  to,  say,  the  eighth 
grade  for  that  grade.     Different  grades  ought,  therefore, 

Figure  ii 
Rate  and  Quality  Scores  m  the  Three  Handwriting  Tests 
QUAUTrAYRE5  HANDWRITING 

60 


50 
40 
30 
ZO 
10 


COMPOSITIONI  ,^pR££ 

g      ,^'i--!^ -^'choice 

,^-^  /''DICTATION 


rate: 


0  10         20       -30    '    40         JO        60         70         80  90        100        110        120        130 

"    ItTTERS    PtR   nnjuTE 

The  graph  shows  that  the  free  choice  and  dictation  tests  agree  closely 
in  both  rate  and  quality;  that  the  composition  test  was  written  at  a  much 
lower  rate  and  with  somewhat  higher  quality  than  the  other  tests. 

to  do  equally  well  on  their  respective  Hsts.  Previous 
studies  indicate  that,  on  the  average,  American  school 
children  in  each  grade,  at  the  time  of  year  the  tests  were 
given,  may  be  expected  to  reach  a  score  of  76  per  cent, 
on  the  words  appropriate  to  their  respective  grades. 
At  Gary,  the  grades,  taken  all  together,  averaged  55 
per  cent. — a  difference  of  21  per  cent.    An  innovation 


94  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

was,  also,  tried.  The  list  framed  for  the  eighth 
grade  was  given  to  grades  9,  10,  11,  and  12;  with 
the  result  that  by  the  end  of  the  twelfth  grade  the 
words  were  spelled  with  80  per  cent,  accuracy.  It 
would  appear,  therefore,  that,  as  thus  tested,  grade  by 
grade,  the  Gary  children  spell  less  well  than  the  chil- 
dren of  the  84  cities  on  which  the  standard  of  76  per  cent, 
used  above  was  based ;  on  the  other  hand,  those  who  re- 
main through  the  twelfth  grade  reach  and  sHghtly  excel 
the  common  eighth  grade  standard.      (Figure  12).^ 

In  order  to  measure  the  development  of  spelling  ability 
from  grade  to  grade,  a  dictation  test  was  employed. 
Several  sets  of  sentences  of  gradually  increasing  difficulty 
were  used,  each  set  being  dictated  to  several  successive 
grades;  thus,  Test  i  was  dictated  to  grades  2,  3,  and  4; 
Test  2,  somewhat  more  difficult,  to  grades  4,  5,  and  6,  etc. 
The  change  in  score  noted  from  class  to  class  thus  indi- 
cates the  extent  of  improvement.  In  general,  the  results 
of  the  dictation  test  confirm  those  of  the  list  tests.  The 
eighth  grade  score  on  the  easy  words  for  the  grade  was 
69  per  cent.,  on  the  difficult  words,  50  per  cent.  In 
grades  2  to  4  the  improvement  shown  in  the  two  year 
interv' al  was  41  per  cent.  For  grades  4  to  6  it  was  but  34 
per  cent.,  from  grades  6  to  8,  20  per  cent.,  from  grades  8  to 
12,  33  per  cent.  In  other  words,  the  results  show  that 
improvement  from  grade  to  grade  is  small  and  relatively 
decreases  as  the  difficulty  of  the  words  increases.     This 

'See  page  95. 


CLASSROOM  TESTS 


95 


Figure  12 

Gary  Scores  in  List  Spelling  Test  Compared  with  Ayres' 

Standards 


SO- 

75 

45- 
30. 

ts 


AYRE5  ^TANDAT^D 


C    B 

3 


b    A 

4 


A     C     8     A     C     B     A 


The  scale  along  the  base  of  the  figure  represents  grades.  The  scale  at 
the  left  of  the  figure  shows  average  per  cent,  of  accuracy  of  spelling.  The 
solid  line  represents  Gary  scores  (generalized).  The  dotted  line  rep- 
resents actual  grade  averages  showing  variation  from  grade  to  grade. 
The  light  solid  line  represents  Ayres'  standards  based  upon  results 
secured  in  eighty  four  American  cities.  The  portion  of  the  curve  to  the 
right  of  the  vertical  line  represents  results  in  the  high  school  grades  in 
which  the  same  eighth  grade  words  were  repeated  from  grade  to  grade. 

fact  is  shown  graphically  (Figure  13)^  by  the  change  in 
the  slant  of  the  development  curves  in  the  successive 
grades. 

As  a  check  upon  the  formal  spelUng  tests,  misspellings 

'See  page  96. 


96 


THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 


in  papers  written  in  the  composition  test  were  tabulated. 
The  errors  noted  were  of  two  sorts:  slips,  or  trivial  mis- 
takes, such  as  the  omission  of  "d"  in  the  word  "and"; 
and  more  serious  misspellings,  such  as  "peise"  (piece). 
In  the  eighth  grade  papers,  27,610  words  were  used,  and 
720  misspellings  occurred — or,  omitting  slips,  5S0.  The 
general  accuracy  of  the  spelling  was  in  either  case  very 
high — 97  or  98  per  cent.,  according  as  slips  are  counted 
or  not — a  result  that  conflicts  with  that  of  the  two  tests 
already  described.  Even  if  the  fifty  common  words, 
used  altogether  14,598  times,  are  omitted,  the  percentage 
of  the  remainder  correctly  spelled  is  still  high  (96  per 
cent.).    The  list  thus  abbreviated  still  contains  many 

Figure  13 
Results  of  Dictation  Tests 


7- 

90 


60 


30- 


TrsT  e, 


rtsj  3 


A-AYRE.5 
G'GAT^Y 

L=W0RD5INL15T5 


CBACBACBACBACBACBACBA. 


GRADES 


CLASSROOM  TESTS  97 

short  and  easy  words,  but  it  also  contains  some  of  the 
so-called  "spelling  demons" — words  commonly  mis- 
spelled by  children  everywhere  and  in  all  grades.  Hence 
the  meaning  of  the  discrepancy  between  the  list  tests  and 
the  composition  tests  must  remain  a  matter  of  speculation. 

The  products  of  training  in  arithmetic  are  many  and  of 
varying  complexity.  They  range  from  such  simple  skills 
as  addition  and  multipHcation  to  such  complex  products 
as  abUity  to  reason  in  arithmetical  terms.  Measure- 
ment of  the  simple  skills  is  comparatively  easy,  but 
Just  what  constitutes  a  legitimate  thinking  or  reasoning 
problem  at  each  stage  of  school  progress  has  not  yet  been 
determined.  Accordingly,  no  reasoning  tests  were  given 
at  Gary.  The  skills  selected  for  measurement  were 
addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division  of 
whole  numbers  and  fractions.  These  abiUties  are  at 
least  fundamental  for  all  arithmetical  work,  both  in 
school  and  in  later  life. 

Measurement  of  the  skill  of  the  Gary  children  in  carry- 
ing out  the  four  fundamental  operations  with  the  Courtis 
Tests,  Series  B,  shows  regular  though  small  gains  in  both 
rate  of  work  and  in  accuracy  throughout  the  elementary 
grades,  a  growth  that  continues  also  through  the  high 
school,  except  in  multiplication,  in  which  little  gain  in 
accuracy  is  made  beyond  the  eighth  grade.  (Figure  14.)^ 
In  general,  the  Gary  results  compare  unfavorably  with 
scores  elsewhere  obtained.     Thus,  the  Gary  eighth  grade 

'Based  on  Gary  results  and  on  results  of  tests  given  in  small  cities, 
May  and  June,  1916. 


98  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

Figure  14 
Development  of  Rate  and  Accuracy  in  Four  Operations^ 


All  scales  have  beea  omitted  inorder  to  bring  the  four  curves  together  in 
one  figure  The  reader  need  only  remember  that  displacement  to  the  right 
means  greater  rate,  and  displacement  toward  the  top'of  the  diagram  means 
greater  accuracy.  All  circles  represent  scores  in  both  rate  and  accuracy. 
The  grades  are  indicated  by  the  small  figures  near  the  circles.  The  solid 
line  represents  Gary  scores.  The  broken  line  represents  results  from  small 
cities. 

children  attempt  8.4  problems  in  addition  as  against  11. 6 
examples,  the  standard  for  small  cities,  and  attain  an  ac- 
curacy of  57 per  cent,  as  against  the  standard,  76  per  cent.^ 
Of  English  composition  it  may  be  fairly  said  at  the 

^Based  on  Gary  results  and  on  results  of  tests  given  in  small  cities, 
May  and  June,  1916. 

'A  comparison  with  1914  standards  would  be  more  favorable  to  Gary. 


CLASSROOM  TESTS  99 

outset  that  American  school  systems,  in  general,  make  a 
poor  showing.  At  Gary  testing  was  limited  to  simple 
narration.  Children  were  asked  to  write  a  story  of  some 
interesting  or  exciting  experience  that  they  had  them- 
selves passed  through.  Subjects  were  suggested,  and,  for 
the  most  part,  their  selection  of  a  topic  conformed  to  the 
suggestions  made  to  them.  Children  wrote  freely  in  the 
presence  of  the  examiners  and  were  given  ample  time — 
fifteen  to  twenty  minutes. 

The  following  paper  illustrates  the  average  composi- 
tion ability  of  the  best  eighth  grade  class  at  Gary  (50 
Hillegas) : 

AN  ACCIDENT 

We  were  out  at  camp  No  133  which  is  sittua- 
ted  m  eri  near  the  banks  of  Deep  River.  One  of 
the  men  that  stayed  at  this  camp  owned  a  old 
duck  boat  which  leaked  and  if  you  wanted  to 
ride  in  it  you  would  have  to  set  a  certain  way  ot 
it  would  fill  with  water  and  soon  sink. 

My  brother  saw  me  paddaling  around  in  it 
and  he  decided  that  he  would  do  it  himself. 
He  weighed  about  twenty-five  lbs.  more  than 
me  I  told  him  the  way  to  set  in  it  but  he  would 
not  listen  but  said  that  one  end  was  as  good  as 
the  other. 

He  jumped  in  and  sat  down  on  the  nearest  end 
which  was  the  wrong  end  and  paddaled  out  in- 
to the  river.     He  paddaled  down  the  river  for 


loo  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

some  distance  and  then  turned  around  to  come 
back.  By  this  time  the  boat  was  nearly  sink- 
ing and  we  saw  him  paddeHng  as  fast  as  he  could 
go  to  get  back  to  the  bank. 

But  it  was  of  no  use  the  boat  began  to  sink 
and  he  tried  to  get  to  the  right  end  but  in  trying 
to  get  to  the  right  end  he  upset  the  boat  and  had 
to  swim  with  all  of  his  clothes  on.  The  water 
wasn't  very  cold  and  he  swam  all  the  way  up  to 
the  bridge  pushing  the  boat  with  him.  He  soon 
was  in  dry  clothes  and  was  none  the  worse  for 
the  accident. 

A  study  of  the  scores  ^  assigned  to  the  eighth  grade 
compositions  shows  that  of  the  122  eighth  grade  pupils 
tested,  but  one  pupil  in  three  wrote  a  composition  in 
merit  equal  to  or  better  than  the  above  sample.  It  is 
therefore  fair  to  infer  that  the  elementary  school  train- 
ing does  not  give  much  power  in  the  selection  of  sub- 
ject matter,  the  organization  of  material,  or  the  choice  of 
words.  The  admirable  teaching  singled  out  for  com- 
ment in  the  preceding  chapter  is  thus  clearly  exceptional 
and  does  not  reach  any  considerable  number  of  pupils. 

Teachers  of  English  hold  that  there  should  be  in 
compositions  increasing  freedom  from  error  from  grade 
to  grade,  and  increasing  power  both  to  choose  the  words 
best  adapted  to  the  expression  of  a  given  thought  and  to 
organize  the  words  chosen  into  coherent  discourse.     Ac- 

1  For  scores  see  Table  LIII,  report  on  Measurement  of  Classroom 
Products. 


CLASSROOM  TESTS  loi 

cordingly,  the  eighth  grade  papers  were  subjected  to  a 
series  of  analyses  in  order  to  determine  the  number 
and  character  of  the  various  errors  made.  Papers  were 
marked  for  gross  errors  in  capitalization,  punctuation, 
spelling,  and  grammar.  On  the  average,  a  Gary  eighth 
grade  child  makes  a  total  of  G^a  gross  errors  in  his  first 
draft  of  an  original  composition  of  214  words. 

Even  more  complicated  than  composition  is  the  sub- 
ject of  reading.  WTiat  do  we  mean  by  the  ability  to 
read?  Do  we  mean  merely  ability  to  pronounce  a  given 
series  of  words  correctly?  Or  is  it  impUed  that  the  series 
of  words  in  question  should  be  read  with  intelligent 
expression?  Does  "reading"  involve  capacity  to  re- 
produce the  thought  in  one's  own  language,  or  the 
ability  to  answer  questions  about  the  contents  of  the 
passage  read?  Is  there  any  difference  between  reading 
aloud  and  reading  to  oneself — oral  reading  and  silent 
reading  so-called?  This  is  not  an  exhaustive  list,  but  it 
serves  to  show  the  necessity  for  careful  procedure,  and 
an  equally  careful  interpretation  of  results. 

Both  oral  and  silent  reading  tests  were  given  at  Gary. 
For  the  former,  Gray's  scale  was  employed.  This  pelds 
a  score  based  on  the  difficulty  of  paragraphs  to  be  pro- 
nounced, the  time  taken  to  read  them,  and  the  number 
of  errors  made.  When  so  tested,  the  Gary  children, 
with  the  possible  exception  of  the  second  and  third 
grades,  read  more  slowly  and  make  slightly  more  errors 
than  children  of  other  systems,  for  example,  the  children 
of  23  Illinois  cities  (Figure  15).^ 

1  See  page  103. 


I02  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

The  Kansas  Silent  Reading  tests,  among  others,  were 
used  to  measure  the  silent  reading  of  the  Gary  children. 
These  consist  of  short  paragraphs,  each  requiring  the 
child  to  make  some  response;  the  accuracy  with  which 
the  response  is  made  indicates  whether  the  paragraph 
has  been  correctly  read  and  comprehended.  The  test  is 
therefore  not  only  a  reading  but  an  intelligence  test,  af- 
fording an  index  of  the  degree  of  development  attained 
in  the  ability  "to  read  and  think  about  what  is  read." 
The  results  show  that  Gary  children  respond  to  a  com- 
plicated test  of  this  kind  about  as  well  as  children  gen- 
erally.    (Figure  i6.)^ 

The  results  of  the  two  chapters  dealing  with  instruc- 
tion may  be  briefly  summarized.  The  impressions 
gained  through  inspection  and  the  results  of  the  tests 
are  not  entirely  consistent.  For  example,  silent  reading 
makes  a  distinctly  better  showing  in  the  tests  than  one 
would  have  expected  on  the  basis  of  classroom  obser\-a- 
tion.  Spelling  makes  a  poor  showing  on  the  list  test  and 
a  very  good  showing  on  the  composition  test.  It  is  not 
possible  to  reconcile  these  divergencies  without  adducing 
considerations  as  to  which  different  opinions  could 
fairly  be  entertained.  Without,  however,  seeking  to 
ignore  the  conflict  of  e\'idence,  the  authors  still  feel  that 
the  quality  of  classroom  instruction  at  Gary  falls  short 
of  what  is  necessary. 

We  are  interested,  however,  not  only  in  the  Gary 
classroom  work  as  such,  but  in  making  out,  if  possible, 

^See  page  103. 


Figure  is 
City  Wide  Average  Scores  by  Grades — Gray's  Oral  Reading  Scale 


100- 

2,3  iLUtioLs  Ci-tCcs 

90. 

70 1 

^  ^     ^^ 

(^ary    . 

80. 

60. 

^ 

70. 

So- 

> 

^ 

60. 
50- 
40- 
30- 

40- 
30 
ZO- 
IC- 

I0-' 

10- 

10- 

10- 

10- 

10- 

20- 

«0- 

0- 

CBACBAC8ACBACBACBACBA 

2S«S  6789 

GRADES 


to        a        u 


Figure  16 
De\'elopment  in  Accuracy — K.ansas  Silent  Reading  Tests 


TELST             .        TE5T2          .71313      /^\ .  . 

/■"■-- 

20- 

■              y 

0^ 

^^ 

CBACBACBACDACBACBACBA 

2345678  9  lOUU, 

GRADES 

G-Gary  series  K-Kansas  series 

103 


I04  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

whether  it  has  been  favorably  or  unfavorably  affected 
by  the  so-called  duplicate  organization  and  the  unpre- 
cedented development  of  special  activities.  From  this 
point  of  \dew,  let  us  recall  certain  important  differences 
between  the  schools.  The  Froebel  and  Emerson  schools 
are  the  only  schools  completely  equipped  on  the  Gary 
plan;  the  Jefferson  and  Beveridge  schools,  though  organ- 
ized on  the  dupUcate  basis,  offer  a  much  simpler  pro- 
gram. Again,  the  Froebel  school,  containing  36  per 
cent,  of  the  entire  school  population,  is  more  recent  in 
origin  and  more  foreign  in  composition  than  the  Emerson. 
Do  the  results  of  the  tests  reflect  tliese  differences?  Is 
the  classroom  work  of  the  fully  developed  Gary  schools 
consistently  different  in  quaUty  from  that  of  the  less  com- 
plicated Gary  schools?     The  facts  are  these: 

In  the  handwriting  tests  there  is  almost  no  trace  of 
constant  differences  from  school  to  school;  the  differ- 
ences in  spelling  are  slight,  but,  such  as  they  are,  lean 
in  favor  of  the  Jefferson  and  Beveridge  schools;  in  arith- 
metic, Beveridge  leads,  Jefferson  comes  second,  Froebel, 
despite  its  handicaps,  surpasses  Emerson;  in  composi- 
tion, the  order  runs,  Jefferson,  Emerson,  Froebel,  Bev- 
eridge; in  oral  reading,  Emerson  is  distinctly  better 
than  the  other  three  schools;  in  silent  reading,  Froebel 
and  Beveridge  read  more  rapidly  than  Jefferson  and 
Emerson,  while  in  the  reproduction  test,  Jefferson  comes 
first,  Emerson  second,  and  Beveridge  last. 

It  is  clear  that  in  both  the  more  complicated  Gary 
schools  the  teaching  is  in  some  subjects  relatively  better 


CLASSROOM  TESTS  105 

than  the  teaching  in  the  simpler  schools  and  that  in  other 
subjects  the  reverse  is  true.  The  extent  to  which  the 
Gary  plan  is  carried  out  is  not  therefore  in  itself  the 
decisive  factor.  We  are  incHned  to  believe  that  low- 
ness  of  score  is  attributable  to  lack  of  unity  of  effort  on 
the  part  of  an  ineffectively  supervised  teaching  staff, 
recruited  from  many  different  sources,  and  to  confusion 
due  to  the  constant  infiltration  of  pupils  from  other 
school  systems,  while  the  fluctuations  from  school  to 
school  and  from  subject  to  subject  are  probably  to  be 
ascribed  to  local  and  individual  causes.  However  this 
may  be,  it  must  be  recognized  that  no  educational  sys- 
tem can  be  considered  to  have  completely  established 
itself  until,  whatever  else  it  achieves,  it  has  also  secured 
the  fundamental  educational  values  represented  by  the 
essential  tools  of  learning.  The  results  of  testing  the 
Gary  schools  do  not  invalidate  the  effort  to  socialize 
education,  but  it  is  evident  that  the  Gary  experiment 
has  not  yet  successfully  solved  the  problems  involved 
in  the  socialization  of  education,  in  so  far  as  efficient 
instruction  in  the  necessary  common  school  branches  is 
concerned. 


IX.    SCIENCE  TEACHING^ 

THE  teaching  of  science  necessarily  plays  an  im- 
portant part  in  an  educational  scheme  constructed 
with  deliberate  and  adequate  reference  to  the 
world  we  live  in.  This  does  not  mean  that  place  is  to  be 
made  for  science  by  excising  from  the  curriculum  studies 
and  activities  that  derive  their  sanction  from  other,  yet 
equally  cogent,  considerations — Uterature,  for  example, 
and  history,  music,  and  art.  The  various  efforts  needed 
in  order  to  touch  the  pupil  at  vital  points  must  harmon- 
ize the  conflicting  demands  upon  his  time  and  energy — a 
problem  rendered  easier  of  solution  by  the  lengthened 
school  day,  improved  school  equipment,  and  the  better 
use  of  the  child's  environment.  An  education  of  this 
type  will,  as  we  have  already  pointed  out,  include  the  tra- 
ditional humane  studies  for  their  social  and  aesthetic 
value;  industrial  acti\'ities,  because  they  give  an  addi- 
tional outlet  for  constructive  impulse,  at  the  same 
time  utilizing  important  aspects  of  current  life;  and, 
finally,  science  studies,  not  only  because  they  give  scope 
and  play  to  senses  and  judgment,  but  because  through 


'For  detailed  account,  see  report  on  Science  Teaching,  by  Otis  W. 
Caldwell. 

1 06 


SCIENCE  TEACHING  107 

them  alone  can  the  child  gain  insight  into  the  world  of 
nature. 

In  connection  with  science  and  shop  work,  the  mere 
cultivation  of  dexterity  and  the  exercise  of  the  senses 
have,  of  course,  an  undeniable  value.  It  is  worth  a  boy's 
while  to  be  "handy,"  and  certainly  worth  his  while  to  be 
observant.  Thus  even  at  the  sense  level,  a  case  can  be 
made  out  for  work  of  this  type.  But  it  takes  a  deeper 
and  stronger  reason  to  justify  the  elaborateness  of  outfit 
which  Gary  has  installed  and  the  seriousness  with  which 
the  subject  is  viewed.  This  is  not  far  to  seek.  It  is,  for 
intellectual  reasons,  a  sound  philosophy  of  education 
which  insists  that  the  child  do  things  rather  than  read 
about  them  or  see  them  done.  But  mere  doing  of  concrete 
tasks — whether  artificial  tasks  from  the  laboratory  manual 
or  real  tasks  from  everyday  Hf e — fails  to  prolong  the  exer- 
cise into  the  intellectual  region.  To  realize  large  educa- 
tional value  the  exercise  needs  to  be  carried  far  enough  to 
bring  out  expHcitly  the  intellectual  side  of  processes.  The 
pupil  must  study  and  study  hard  about  the  factors  which 
he  is  manipulating;  he  must  think  and  think  hard  about 
the  causal  and  purposeful  relations  involved  in  the  con- 
crete processes  that  he  is  carrying  out.  He  must  eventu- 
ally be  able  to  express  results  in  generalized  form,  and  to 
deal  in  the  abstract  with  laws  and  relationships.  A  de- 
velopment of  this  kind  does  not  take  place  sponta- 
neously, as  a  result  of  the  pupil's  working  with  metals,  a 
printing  press,  a  dynamo,  or  a  camera.  Yet  in  these  ap- 
pealing tools  and  objects — camera,  dynamo,  or  lathe — 


io8  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

innumerable  intellectual  values  and  factors  are  involved 
— the  origin  and  history  of  culture,  the  properties  of 
materials,  the  application  of  laws  and  principles  of  wide 
scope.  Only  a  skillful  instructor,  pursuing  a  well  thought 
out  and  well  wrought  out  plan,  requiring  interested 
and  protracted  effort  on  the  pupil's  part,  can  teach  sci- 
ence in  this  fashion.  But  science  and  shop  teaching 
will  not  otherwise  meet  expectations  or  realize  their  possi- 
biHties. 

Great  hopes  attended  the  introduction  of  science 
studies  into  education — hopes  that  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent have  thus  far  been  disappointed.  If  we  assume — 
as  we  do — that  this  disappointment  does  not  really  imply 
simply  a  mistaken  enthusiasm  on  the  part  of  those 
who  believe  in  the  importance  of  science  in  the  child's 
educational  development,  several  reasons  may  be  as- 
signed for  it — the  lack  of  sufficient  school  time,  the  lack 
of  trained  teachers,  and  the  employment  of  an  unsound 
method.  These  factors  go  far  to  account  for  the  unsat- 
isfactory outcome  of  the  early  efforts  to  teach  science  in 
the  elementary  and  the  high  school.  The  subjects  usually 
got  only  a  "stepmotherly"  position  on  the  school  sched- 
ule; often  the  teachers  had  not  been  properly  trained; 
finally,  the  method  of  presentation  was  excessively 
formal  and  abstract,  i.  e.,  the  subjects  were  presented  to 
children  in  the  severe  logical  fashion  appropriate  only  to 
mature  minds. 

A  method  of  approach  that  seeks  to  remedy  these  de- 
fects has  often  been  urged  by  educational  reformers  and 


SCIENCE  TEACHING  109 

has  already  in  a  measure  been  successfully  demonstrated 
in  a  few  places.  Gary  has,  however,  undertaken  the  ex- 
periment on  a  larger  scale  and  with  more  elaborate  facili- 
ties. 

The  science  teaching  of  the  Gary  schools  falls  natur- 
ally into  two  divisions,  (i)  nature  study  and  gardening, 
carried  on  in  the  primary  grades,  (2)  study  of  the  sepa- 
rate organized  sciences,  carried  on  in  the  upper  grades  of 
the  elementary  school  and  in  the  high  school.  Nature 
study  and  gardening  are  conmion  to  practically  all  the 
schools  of  the  system,  while  the  study  of  the  separate 
organized  sciences  in  the  intermediate  and  higher 
grades  is  practically  Limited  to  the  Emerson  and  Froebel 
schools.  Theoretically,  the  science  work  of  all  schools 
is  viewed  as  a  department  under  the  supervising 
direction  of  the  teacher  of  chemistry  in  the  Emerson 
school,  but  this  organization  is  only  nominal.  No  gen- 
eral statement  of  purposes,  no  outline  or  plan  of  work 
aiming  to  secure  coherence  and  progression  throughout 
the  system  had  been  prepared.  The  several  schools 
were  left  free  to  define  things,  each  for  itself,  without 
careful  oversight. 

In  respect  to  scheduled  time  allotment  in  the 
elementary  schools,  science  exceeds  six  subjects  and 
is  itself  exceeded  by  six  subjects;  it  gets  more  time 
than  German,  music,  geography,  writing,  spelling,  or 
history,  less  than  reading,  language,  arithmetic,  manual 
training  (including  drawing),  auditorium,  or  physical 
training.      In  this  matter,  Gary  does  distinctly  better 


no  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

for  science  subjects  than  other  systems.  While  the 
fifty  cities,  whose  programs  were  tabulated  by  Pro- 
fessor Holmes  of  Harvard,  schedule  on  the  average  331 
hours  to  science  in  the  elementary  school,  Gary  schedules 
567 — i.  e.,  70  per  cent.  more.  Of  the  total  school  time, 
science  gets  in  the  fifty  cities  on  the  average  4  per  cent. ; 
at  Gary,  5  per  cent.  This,  however,  be  it  observed,  is  the 
scheduled  allowance.  At  Gary,  practice  falls  short  of 
theory,  though  we  are  unable  to  state  how  far  short. 
The  time  set  apart  for  science  is  not  infrequently  found  to 
be  otherwise  occupied. 

For  the  nature  study  work  of  the  primary  grades,  which 
is  conducted  by  special  teachers  except  in  the  very  small- 
est schools,  all  the  schools  possess  more  or  less  equip- 
ment. The  large  resources  of  the  Emerson  and  Froebel 
schools  easily  supply  the  requisite  material.  Of  the 
smaller  schools,  the  Jefferson  provides  a  remodeled  class- 
room, containing  a  plant  growing  house,  animal  house, 
and  work  place  for  children,  mounted  specimens,  birds' 
nests,  etc.;  the  Beveridge  school  possesses  less,  the  Glen 
Park  school,  almost  nothing,  and  the  remaining  schools, 
nothing.  All  the  schools,  however,  with  the  exception 
of  Ambridge  and  West  Gary,  have  ample  and  flourishing 
gardens.' 

The  work  in  these  early  grades  is  formless  and 
discontinuous  in  character.     Not  only  is  there  no  general 

^It  is  difficult — and  properly  so — to  draw  a  sharp  line  between  nature 
study  and  botany,  especially  at  the  Froebel  and  Emerson  schools,  where 
the  teachers  of  botany  are  in  charge  of  the  school  gardens. 


SCIENCE  TEACHING  iii 

program,  but  no  teacher  has  developed  a  compre- 
hensive program  of  her  own.  At  the  Jefferson,  for 
example,  one  of  the  earlier  grades  was  at  the  time  of 
the  survey  attempting  observational  work  on  the  pussy- 
willow. Another  class  was  engaged  in  developing  the 
subject  of  climate  with  particular  reference  to  the  cause 
of  winds;  at  the  close  of  the  discussion  a  home  experiment 
to  show  how  air  currents  are  affected  by  heat  was  sug- 
gested, though  the  explanation  was  too  vague  to  guaran- 
tee a  successful  result.  At  the  Beveridge  school,  nature 
study,  which  does  not  go  beyond  the  third  grade,  was 
of  the  same  occasional  character,  consisting  of  things 
that  seemed  to  "iit  in  best" — now  a  field  trip  for  fruit 
branches,  again  a  bird  lesson,  later,  an  observational  study 
of  beans.  In  the  absence  aHke  of  a  program,  and  of 
appropriate  records,  it  was  not  easy  to  ascertain  just 
what  had  preceded  or  what  was  to  follow.  In  the 
Emerson  school,  the  children  were  particularly  interested 
in  the  observation  and  care  of  Hving  animals.  The 
clearest  evidence  of  interest  and  activity  appeared  in 
certain  schools,  where  the  pupils  had  mounted  seeds 
of  the  wild  plants  of  the  region,  birds'  nests,  pictures  of 
birds,  photographs,  and  landscape  drawings.  In  all  the 
schools,  with  the  exceptions  noted  above,  gardening  is 
the  most  substantial  and  regular  feature  of  the  nature 
work.  It  is,  of  course,  not  to  be  supposed  that  nature 
work  should  be  uniform  throughout  the  schools.  Much 
latitude  may  be  wisely  allowed,  in  order  to  permit 
the  most  effective  use  of  varying  conditions  and  oppor- 


112  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

tunities;  but,  whatever  the  divergencies,  a  definite  pur- 
pose should  guide  the  entire  system  and  a  certain  orderly 
development  ought  to  be  discernible  in  the  successive 
classes. 

In  the  upper  grades  of  the  elementary  school,  where 
subjects  of  study  become  more  definite  and  where  more 
highly  organized  material  can  be  utilized,  science  instruc- 
tion is,  as  has  been  stated,  practically  confined  to  the 
Emerson  and  Froebel  schools.  The  subjects  offered 
include  botany  and  gardening,  zoology,  physics,  and 
chemistry.  The  equipment  of  the  two  schools,  while 
not  uniform,  is  good  and  in  some  respects  remarkably 
so.  Thus  the  Froebel  school  possesses  an  excellent 
botanical  laboratory,  the  Emerson,  an  unusually  attrac- 
tive zoological  laboratory  with  aquaria,  an  animal 
room,  incubators,  and  an  extensive  out-of-door 
"zoo";  the  physics  laboratory  of  the  Emerson  contains 
apparatus  needed  for  regular  high  school  work  and  a 
considerable  amount  of  machinery  and  various  mecha- 
nisms— cameras,  automobile  engine,  etc.,  that  can  be 
utilized  in  demonstrating  applied  principles;  the 
chemical  laboratories  in  the  two  schools  do  not  differ 
essentially  from  what  is  found  in  the  usual  modern  high 
school. 

The  courses  of  study  vary  in  the  two  schools.  In 
botany,  the  work  of  the  seventh  grade  pupils  in  the 
Emerson  is  based  primarily  on  care  of  the  garden,  the 
shrubbery  on  the  school  grounds,  and  the  potted  plants 
in  the  school  greenhouse  and  corridors;  an  outline  had 


SCIENCE  TEACHING  113 

been  prepared,  covering  systematically  and  in  detail 
such  subjects  as  the  soil,  plant  analysis,  plant  reproduc- 
tion dangerous  plants,  farm  crops,  etc.  At  the  Froebel 
school,  the  teacher  was  making  excellent  use  of  out-of- 
door  experiences  as  well  as  classroom  studies  by  organ- 
izing these  into  definite  topics  or  projects.  An  extremely 
interesting  project  was  made  of  harvesting;  other  topics 
of  the  same  character  were  handled  in  similar  fashion 
with  unmistakable  evidence  that  the  pupils  were  inter- 
ested and  were  profiting.  With  high  school  classes, 
the  Emerson  school  used,  but  did  not  closely  follow,  a 
printed  outline  of  practical  botany.  There  was  evidence 
of  considerable  use  of  the  microscope.  At  the  Froebel,  a 
regular  textbook  was  employed,  but  extensive  readjust- 
ments of  order  and  content  were  made.  Coherent  se- 
quence of  topics  was  regarded  as  of  less  importance  than 
vitaHty  of  appeal.  Effective  use  was  made  in  the  audito- 
rium of  exercises  developed  in  the  laboratory  and  garden, 
with  unquestionable  increase  of  interest  on  the  part  of 
pupils. 

In  physics,  grade  work  at  the  Emerson  school  covers 
a  period  of  thirteen  weeks  and  is  of  a  topical  or  project 
character,  closely  related  either  to  common  experience 
or  shop  work.  The  weight  and  density  of  the  air,  mois- 
ture, the  thermometer  are  examples  of  the  former; 
problems  derived  from  the  bicycle,  automobile,  electric, 
gas,  or  water  meter,  of  the  latter.  The  instruction  ob- 
served was  excellent,  the  instructor  securing  the  interest 
and  active  participation  of  the  class  in  the  development  of 


114  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

successive  themes.  Moreover,  the  pupils  saw  through- 
out the  meaning  and  application  of  facts  eUcited  and 
principles  discussed.  Less  well  organized  and  less 
effective  was  the  grade  work  in  physics  at  the  Froebel 
school.  In  general,  the  teacher  conducted  demonstrations, 
which  the  pupils  followed  and  at  times  repeated. 
The  high  school  work,  consisting  of  a  set  of  laboratory 
experiments  covering  the  main  di^dsions  of  the  subject, 
did  not  differ  materially  from  the  usual  high  school 
courses. 

More  systematic  is  the  Emerson  course  in  zoology, 
covering  forty  weeks,  made  up  of  two  months'  work  on 
insects,  three  or  four  months'  study  of  the  most  important 
animal  groups,  a  month  or  six  weeks  of  human  physiology, 
the  remaining  weeks  of  the  year  being  devoted  to  collect- 
ing and  studying  the  zoological  materials  character- 
istic of  the  environment.  The  course  was  a  happy 
combination  of  scientific  order  with  practical  interest. 
The  study  of  insects,  for  example,  involved  the  use  of 
both  textbook  and  laboratory;  but  the  teacher  had  an 
eye  for  such  topics  as  insects  and  plants,  insects  and  hu- 
man disease,  beneficial  insects,  etc.  Among  the  most 
successful  and  elaborate  projects  in  operation  may  be 
mentioned  care  of  poultry — a  subject  conscientiously 
pursued  through  all  its  phases  from  incubator  to  market 
— though  one  would  hardly  be  warranted  in  placing 
complete  confidence  in  the  records  kept  by  the  pupils. 
The  Froebel  work  in  this  subject  was  distinctly  inferior. 

In  chemistry  similar  conditions  prevail.     The  grade 


SCIENCE  TEACHING  115 

work  is  topical  in  character.  At  the  Emerson  school, 
starch  conversions,  fermentation,  carbon  compounds  are 
among  the  subjects  concretely  presented  to  pupils  in  the 
upper  elementary  grades.  In  both  high  schools,  a  year 
is  systematically  devoted  to  the  subject.  A  well  known 
textbook  is  in  use,  supplemented,  especially  at  the 
Emerson  school,  by  illustrations  drawn  from  industrial 
processes.  Thus,  for  example,  the  school  coal  was  tested 
by  the  teacher  and  pupils  in  cooperation.  So,  again, 
the  dyes  used  in  commercial  jeUies  were  investigated; 
pupils  were  also  employed  at  the  City  Health  Depart- 
ment, assisting  in  the  bacteriological  examination  of 
milk. 

Classroom  and  garden  work  in  all  the  sciences  is  sup- 
plemented by  the  use  of  science  materials  in  the  audito- 
rium, to  which,  as  we  shall  shortly  see,  Gary  has  given  a 
quite  unprecedented  development.  Through  a  large  part 
of  the  school  day,  successive  groups  of  classes  assemble 
there  to  witness  a  varied  program — now  a  film,  now  a 
dramatic  representation,  now  a  class  exercise.  Science 
frequently  finds  a  place  on  the  program — one  day,  a  sim- 
ple piece  of  nature  study  offered  by  httle  children,  again 
a  really  substantial  topic  carefully  prepared  by  high 
school  pupils.  On  one  occasion  each  child  in  a  group 
of  seven  explained  to  a  large  audience  how  seeds  are 
distributed,  under  such  titles  as  Why  Seeds  Travel, 
Some  Little  Tramps,  Seed  Sailboats,  etc. ;  on  another,  a 
high  school  pupil,  under  the  guidance  of  the  English 
teacher  in  cooperation  with  the  teacher  of  zoology,  ex- 


ii6  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

hibited  two  Mallard  ducks,  which  he  had  himself  shot 
and  mounted,  and  then  discussed  the  entire  life  history  of 
the  ducks  in  question,  how  they  mate,  nest,  breed,  their 
enemies,  their  haunts,  uses,  migration,  etc.  The  various 
stages  of  the  extended  poultry  project,  noted  above,  lent 
themselves  admirably  to  auditorium  presentation  from 
time  to  time.  It  should  be  observed  also  that  the  use  of 
the  auditorium  brings  about  cooperation  between  science, 
shop,  and  English  instructors. 

In  science  classes,  as  in  the  shops  and  kitchens,  Gary 
makes  considerable  use  of  "helpers,"  younger  children 
assigned  to  work  with  a  more  advanced  class.  Adults 
who  in  childhood  attended  ungraded  schools  occasion- 
ally testify  to  the  stimulus  derived  by  them  from  listen- 
ing to  older  pupils.  The  sharp  classifications  of  our 
highly  organized  schools  undoubtedly  involve  a  loss  in 
this  respect.  On  the  other  hand,  the  "helper"  situation 
is  stimulating  only  if  there  is  some  real  participation, 
intellectual  or  otherwise,  on  the  part  of  the  younger 
pupils.  No  educational  advantage  comes  to  them  from 
sitting  idly  by,  without  interest  or  responsibility.  In 
the  science  classes  at  Gary,  as  in  the  shops,  one  feels  at 
times  that  assignment  as  helpers  is  a  device  resorted  to 
in  order  to  relieve  the  schedule  rather  than  profitably 
to  employ  pupils.  The  plan  should  not  be  discarded, 
but  it  should  be  less  freely  and  more  discriminatingly 
used. 

The  foregoing  account  makes  it  clear  just  what  Gary 
has  done  to  cure  the  defects  of  science  teaching.     We 


SCIENCE  TEACHING  117 

stated  at  the  outset  that  science  is  still  in,  most  schools 
grudgingly  treated  in  the  way  of  time  and  facilities,  and 
that  science  materials,  largely  because  they  lack  con- 
creteness,  make  too  feeble  an  appeal  to  children.  Gary 
has  been  comparatively  generous  in  gi\ing  time  and  pro- 
viding equipment,  and  has  thus  explicitly  stamped  the 
subject  as  important. 

It  is,  however,  quite  impossible  to  characterize  the 
instruction  in  general  tenns.  Here  and  there — notably 
in  the  high  school  grades  of  the  Emerson  school — it  was 
good,  that  is,  the  instructor  pursued  an  orderly  plan  in 
choosing  and  arranging  material  and  constantly  sought 
to  show  the  way  in  which  science  principles  are  nowadays 
applied  in  the  common  mechanisms  of  modern  society. 
The  pupils  were  interested,  but  they  were  more  than 
interested — they  were  being  trained.  So,  also,  the  teaching 
of  botany  at  the  Froebel  school  was  in  a  high  degree 
intelligent  and  effective;  it  was  not  deficient  in  scientific 
order,  but  nevertheless  kept  in  close  contact  with  the 
facts  of  life.  Elsewhere,  however,  the  instruction 
was  too  frequently  formless  and  aimless.  It  had 
too  often  abandoned  the  safe  though  usually  dispiriting 
support  of  the  textbook,  without  finding  other  safe 
anchorage. 

In  science,  as  in  shop  work  and  household  arts,  practical 
tests  were  given.  The  difficulties  encountered  are 
obvious.  There  are  as  yet  no  standardized  tests  in  these 
practical  activities,  hence  Gary  results  cannot  be  com- 
pared with  results  elsewhere.     Again,  in  the  absence  of 


ii8  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

previous  efforts  to  test  the  pupils  and  of  definite  records  of 
what  ground  the  several  classes  had  covered,  it  is  not 
possible  to  say  to  what  extent  the  results  of  the  tests  are 
to  be  ascribed  to  the  instruction  received.  Despite  these 
drawbacks,  it  was  felt  that  a  precedent  should  be  set,  in 
order  that  teachers  of  science  might  be  stimulated  to 
define  their  purposes  and  to  set  about  the  preparation  of 
objective  tests  of  their  teaching. 

Nine  tests  were  given  to  all  eighth  grade  classes,  to  the 
seventh  grade  of  the  Beveridge  school,^  and  to  the  high 
school  classes  in  the  Emerson  and  Froebel  schools.  Three 
types  of  abihty  were  tested — ^first,  ability  to  observe  and 
to  discriminate  objects  placed  before  the  pupils;  next, 
ability  to  recall  past  experiences  and  apply  their  out- 
come to  tiew,  but  similar,  experiences;  and  lastly,  ability 
to  interpret  and  explain  phenomena  which  undergo 
changes  in  the  pupil's  presence.  To  test  ability  to  ob- 
serve and  discriminate,  children  were  asked  to  note 
what  they  saw  when  an  oak  leaf  and  an  elm  leaf  were 
placed  before  them,  or  when  colored  pictures  of  birds 
strikingly  alike  or  strikingly  different  were  submitted 
to  them.  Abihty  to  recall  was  tested  by  asking  the  pupil 
to  name  birds  or  insects  which  he  had  seen  or  studied. 
Abihty  to  interpret  changing  phenomena  was  tested  by 
performing  in  the  pupil's  presence  experiments  involving 
gravity,  the  properties  of  air,  and  air  currents  due 
to  variations  in  temperature. 

The  results  showed  beyond  all  question  that  in  vary- 

'Where  there  is  no  eighth  grade. 


SCIENCE  TEACHING  119 

ing  degrees  the  Gary  pupils  can  observe,  discriminate, 
recall,  and  reason  about  phenomena,  though  individual 
variations  within  the  several  classes  are  very  marked. 
The  Beveridge  school,  where  science  teaching  is  Limited, 
makes  an  unfavorable  showing  as  compared  with  the 
Emerson,  Froebel,  and  Jefferson  schools,  though  of 
course  there  are  individual  exceptions.  Despite  the 
fact  that  its  opportunities  are  inferior  to  those  of 
Emerson  and  Froebel,  the  Jefferson  school  makes,  in 
general,  the  best  showing  of  all,  partly,  perhaps,  because 
the  school  is  more  homogeneous  in  composition,  partly, 
beyond  all  doubt,  because  the  school  program  is 
better  organized  and  better  supervised.  On  the  whole, 
however,  the  results  cannot  be  regarded  as  satisfactory. 
The  performance  is  too  uneven  and  excellence  is  too 
infrequent. 

This  unsatisfactory  showing  would  seem  primarily 
attributable  to  lack  of  continuity  and  design.  Even  sci- 
ence teaching  of  conventional  type  cannot  run  itself; 
still  less  so,  science  teaching  which  abandons  the  beaten 
path.  Supervision  and  staff  organization,  necessary 
under  ordinary  circumstances,  need  to  be  more  efficient, 
more  intelligent,  even  if  also  more  flexible,  under  the  con- 
ditions that  obtain  at  Gary.  But  Gary's  science  super- 
vision is  nominal  and  its  staff  conferences  far  too  rare 
to  answer  their  purpose.  In  such  circumstances,  con- 
ventional teaching  would  be  unlikely  to  be  good  of  its 
kind;  a  large  experimental  undertaking  is  foredoomed  to 
an  unsatisfactory  result, 


I20  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

Gary  has,  however,  shown  courage  and  resourceful- 
ness in  trying  to  deprive  science  teaching  of  its  remote 
and  abstract  character,  in  trying  to  bring  it  into  touch 
with  the  child's  experience  and  to  relate  it  to  his  other 
school  work.  Teachers  of  English  and  teachers  of  science 
occasionally  attack  a  large  problem  together;  the  shop 
and  the  laboratories  are  at  times  brought  to  bear  on 
identical  problems.  This  is  excellent  as  far  as  it  goes, 
and  contains  the  germ  from  which  a  rational  course  in 
school  science  may  ultimately  be  worked  out.  But  it  is 
not  enough  merely  to  break  away  from  the  formal,  cut  and 
dried  type  of  science  teaching  represented  by  most  text- 
books and  to  introduce  concrete  problems  from  time  to 
time.  Chaos  supervenes  unless  aims  have  been  sharply 
defined  and  the  orderly  development  of  laws  and  princi- 
ples assured  through  intelligent  and  forceful  guidance. 
Beyond  a  general,  and,  be  it  admitted,  a  sound  predilection 
for  the  concrete  as  embodied  in  the  environment  and 
experience  of  the  child,  it  is  impossible  to  discern  at  Gary 
a  principle  of  organization  or  progression  in  science 
teaching.  Unquestionably,  the  children  are  interested 
in  their  science  work  and  derive  pleasure  from  it.  But 
science  fulfills  its  educational  mission,  not  simply  by 
arousing  interest  in  a  disconnected  series  of  phenom- 
ena or  giving  pleasure  through  a  disconnected  series 
of  experiences,  but  by  cultivating  the  child's  capacity 
to  deal  intelligently  and  vigorously  with  problems. 
This  ought  indeed  to  be  both  an  interesting  and  a 
pleasurable  task;  but  unless  it  involves  order,  persistence, 


SCIENCE  TEACHING  121 

and  hard  work,  its  educative  effect  is  probably  of  minor 
importance  only.  Unless  so  presented,  science  is  likely 
to  be  a  transient  diversion  rather  than  a  profoundly 
formative  and  disciplinary  influence  in  the  child's 
development. 


X.    INDUSTRIAL  WORK^ 

WE  HAVE  stated  in  a  previous  chapter  that  the 
Gary  scheme  springs  from  a  thorough  analysis 
of  the  existing  social  situation.  The  truth  of 
this  statement  is  particularly  evidenced  by  the  pro- 
visions made  for  industrial  work  for  boys,  household 
arts  for  girls,  and  recreation  for  all. 

As  contrasted  with  children  brought  up  in  the  country, 
urban  children  usually  find  Httle  in  their  environment 
that  places  upon  them  any  real  responsibility  or  tends  to 
develop  manual  skill.  The  city  home  has  practically 
ceased  to  carry  on  productive  tasks;  the  operations  fun- 
damental to  industry  and  transportation  are  so  remote 
and  so  intricate  that  we  quickly  become  their  passive 
beneficiaries  without  participation  or  even  understanding. 
The  growing  child's  experience  has  thus  been  distinctly 
impoverished,  while  the  leisure  and  energy  once  produc- 
tively and  cooperatively  erJisted  in  the  home  find 
nowadays  too  easy  an  outlet  in  demoralizing  amuse- 
ments. 

The  special  activities,  to  the  consideration  of  which 
we  now  pass — the  shops,  kitchens,  sewing  rooms,  and 

^For  detailed  account,  see  report  on  Industrial  Work,  by  Charles  R. 
Richards. 


INDUSTRIAL  WORK  123 

recreational  facilities — are  thus  justified  by  a  variety 
of  considerations.  They  are  physically  helpful,  for  they 
contribute  to  a  complete  development  of  muscles  and 
senses.  They  are  socially  wholesome,  for  they  break  down 
the  false  scholastic  distinction  between  intellectual 
and  manual  tasks;  they  are  in  the  stricter  educational 
sense  important,  because  they  supplement  the  printed 
word  with  actual  experiences,  which,  intelligently  handled, 
give  new  and  real  meanings  to  formal  school  exercises, 
enlarge  the  child's  range  of  vision,  and  disclose  otherwise 
unsuspected  needs  and  aptitudes. 

Industrial  equipment  and  opportunities  vary  greatly 
in  the  different  Gary  schools.  They  are  most  highly 
developed  in  the  Emerson  school,  where  provision  is 
made  for  machine  work,  foundry,  forge,  and  printing,  and 
in  the  Froebel,  where  carpentry,  plumbing,  sheet  metal 
work,  painting,  printing,  pottery,  and  cobbling  are  pro- 
vided. Printing  is  the  only  industrial  opportunity  com- 
mon to  both  schools.  In  Jefferson,  a  single  combina- 
tion shop  offers  carpentry  and  a  limited  opportunity  in 
metal  work,  and  there  is  a  single  woodworking  shop  at 
Glen  Park  and  at  Beveridge;  the  remaining  schools 
have  no  special  shop  equipment.  The  industrial  facili- 
ties of  the  Emerson  and  the  Froebel  schools  are,  as  has 
already  been  stated,  exceptionally  diversified  and  ex- 
tensive. 

The  amount  of  time  given  to  industrial  instruction 
varies  considerably.  At  the  Emerson,  where  the  school 
year  consists  of  three  terms  of  thirteen  weeks  each, 


124  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

grades  4  to  8  devote  approximately  two  hours  daily  for 
one  term  to  science,  two  hours  daily  for  a  second  term  to 
shop  work,  and  divide  two  hours  daUy  of  the  third  term 
between  drawing  (one  hour  a  week)  and  an  elective— 
which  may  be  shop  work,  if  the  boy  so  desires.  At 
the  Froebel,  where  the  year  consists  of  four  terms, 
each  ten  weeks  in  length,  pupils  in  the  fourth  and  fifth 
grades  work  at  printing,  plumbing,  and  painting;  pupils 
in  the  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  grades  are  scheduled  to 
spend  two  hours  a  week  for  a  term  each  in  drawing,  shop 
work,  science,  and  as  teachers'  assistants. 

These  theoretical  schedules  hold  fairly  well  for  the 
several  classes  of  a  school,  as  before  pointed  out,  but  are 
only  loosely  followed  in  actual  practice  by  the  different 
members  of  a  class.  Individuals  were  by  no  means  in- 
frequently found  who  had  spent  an  entire  year,  instead 
of  a  single  term,  in  this  or  that  shop;  pupils  were  found 
who  had  had  several  shop  terms,  but  no  training  in 
mechanical  dra\\'ing.  Of  20  cases  in  which  special  rec- 
ords were  obtained  at  the  Emerson  school,  1 1  had  taken 
some  form  of  shop  work  in  each  of  the  three  terms  of 
19 1 5-16;  7  had  done  shop  work  during  two  terms,  and  only 
2  had  had  a  single  term  of  shop  work  and  one  term  of 
mechanical  drawing.  The  record  of  these  pupils  in  pre- 
\dous  years  was  much  the  same ;  in  many  instances  every 
term  for  three  years,  sometimes  every  term  for  four  years 
had  included  shop  work. 

Similar  conditions  prevail  at  the  Froebel  school.  Of 
the   elementary   pupils   enrolled   in   all   Froebel   shops 


INDUSTRIAL  WORK  125 

during  the  four  terms,  603  worked  one  hour,  225  worked 
two  hours,  and  5  worked  three  hours.  Of  28  pupils 
whose  records  were  obtained,  5  had  had  shop  work  in 
each  of  the  four  terms  of  19 15-16;  4  had  had  three  terms 
of  shop  work  and  one  term  as  store  attendant;  4  others 
had  had  three  terms  of  shop  and  one  of  mechanical  draw- 
ing; 6  had  had  three  terms  of  shop  work;  2,  two  terms  of 
shop  and  one  of  mechanical  drawing;  6,  two  terms  of 
shop  work;  only  i  pupil  had  had  but  a  single  term  of 
shop  work  during  the  year.  For  previous  years,  the 
records  of  the  same  pupils  were  similar. 

Whether  the  frequent  departures  from  schedule  are 
to  be  interpreted  as  indicative  of  flexibility  or  laxity  must 
depend  to  some  extent  on  the  care  taken  by  the  school 
to  ensure  intelligent  choice.  It  would  be  absurd  to  hold 
all  pupils  to  the  same  formula;  it  does  not  follow,  how- 
ever, that  it  is  wise  to  allow  children  to  do  what  they 
choose  or  as  they  please.  A  flexible  curriculum  is  not  a 
curriculum  subject  to  unaccountable  and  irresponsible 
modification;  it  is,  as  we  have  already  urged,  a  curricu- 
lum adjustable  on  the  basis  of  carefully  considered  in- 
dividual needs,  capacities,  difficulties,  and  opportunities. 
Thus  viewed,  the  Gary  administration  of  shop  instruction 
is  lax  rather  than  flexible.  The  uncontrolled  preference  of 
the  pupil  appeared  frequently  to  be  the  main  determining 
factor  in  regard  to  the  disposition  and  extent  of  the  shop 
periods.  At  the  Emerson  school,  pupils  assigned  to  shop 
work  are  designated  to  particular  shops  by  a  clerk  in 
the  shop  supervisor's  office.     No  discrimination  appears 


126  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

to  be  exercised,  no  counsel  to  be  given.  Questions  ad- 
dressed to  the  pupils  showed  that  a  shop  choice  is  often  a 
matter  of  accident.  Conditions  were  but  little  better 
at  the  Froebel  school,  where  the  distribution  of  pupils 
to  the  various  shops  was  made  by  an  instructor,  who, 
however,  during  the  period  of  the  survey  gave  very  little 
attention  to  serious  counsel  with  children  as  to  their 
shop  elections. 

The  children  in  earlier  grades  (fourth  and  fifth,  ages 
ten  to  twelve)  participate  in  shop,  science,  and  art  work 
not  as  regular  pupils,  but  as  "helpers."  The  school 
is  viewed  "as  a  large  family,  wherein  the  younger  chil- 
dren learn  consciously  and  unconsciously  from  the  older 
children,  while  the  latter  learn  to  assume  responsibility 
and  to  take  the  initiative,"  The  younger  pupils,  it  is  held, 
learn  more  by  working  with  older  pupils  than  they  can 
be  taught  in  separate  classes  by  themselves. 

On  the  strictly  educational  side,  the  "  helper"  system  in 
the  shops  might  be  defended  on  the  ground  that  a  more 
or  less  unsystematic  experience  forms  an  excellent  basis 
for  more  systematic  effort  at  a  later  stage.  Once  more, 
practice  and  theory  do  not  fully  agree.  Observation 
in  the  Gary  shops  indicates  that  the  younger  children 
do  not  really  "help"  their  elders,  but  themselves  con- 
stitute groups  to  which  separate  and  definite  tasks  are 
assigned,  groups  to  which  instructors  give  time  and  at- 
tention in  the  same  manner,  though  not  always  to  the 
same  extent,  as  to  older  pupils.  For  example,  in  the 
forge  and  foundry  of  the  Emerson  school  there  were 


INDUSTRIAL  WORK  127 

classes  made  up  of  9  to  16  boys  from  the  third,  fourth, 
and  fifth  grades,  with  only  one  or  two  older  boys;  obvi- 
ously, a  dozen  children  cannot  "help"  two  older  pupils. 
Again,  from  12  to  16  fourth  grade  pupils  constituted  a 
group  in  which  there  were  no  older  boys  at  all.  Never- 
theless, in  all  the  instances,  the  tliird,  fourth,  and  fifth 
grade  pupils  are  called  "helpers"  on  the  program.  So 
at  the  Froebel  school,  the  majority  of  regular  assign- 
ments on  the  program  of  February  i,  19 16,  in  the  print- 
ing, plumbing,  and  painting  shops  consist  of  fourth  and 
fifth  grade  pupils  without  admixture  of  older  pupils. 
The  word  "helper"  was  not  used  to  designate  these 
groups,  though  they  were  composed  entirely  of  pupils  of 
the  "helper"  grades. 

Of  how  much  educational  value  is  such  experience? 
Something  would  depend  on  the  alternatives  open.  If 
the  child  were  not  in  a  shop,  where  would  he  be  and  what 
would  he  be  doing?  In  so  far  as  the  direct  value  of  the 
experience  itself  is  concerned,  it  may  perhaps  be  fairly 
said  that  tliird  grade  children — found  in  considerable 
numbers  despite  the  schedule — have  too  Httle  power  of 
sustained  attention,  too  little  mental  development,  and 
for  certain  shops  not  enough  physical  strength  to  gain 
much  direct  advantage.  The  situation  in  respect  to 
the  fourth  and  fifth  grades  is  less  definite  and  varies 
with  the  shops.  In  the  forge  shop,  they  potter  away 
ineffectually  at  work  beyond  their  strength  and  skill. 
In  the  foundry,  however,  barring  the  lifting  of  the  loaded 
flasks,  they  can  not  only  appreciate  the  common  pro- 


128  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

cesses,  but  they  can  master  the  simpler  operations.  In 
printing,  the  exacting  work  of  typesetting  requires  more 
care  and  patience  than  boys  and  girls  of  this  age  are  usu- 
ally capable  of.  In  woodworking,  simple  work  can  be 
satisfactorily  accomplished,  and  this  is  to  a  small  extent 
perhaps  true  of  elementary  tinsmi thing.  The  work  of 
cutting  and  threading  pipe  in  the  plumbing  shop  requires 
more  strength  and  muscular  coordination  than  boys  of 
this  age  can  bring  to  bear.  In  painting,  very  simple 
work  can  probably  be  accomplished,  but  it  is  doubtful 
whether  sustained  effort  can  be  counted  on  for  a  two  hour 
period.  In  the  shoe  shop,  substantial  though  somewhat 
rough  work  can  be  done  by  these  pupils.  In  general,  it 
would  seem  true  that  the  presence  of  these  children  in 
the  forge,  printing,  and  plumbing  shops  results  in  little 
that  is  of  value  and  that  the  only  shops  for 
which  any  argument  can  be  made  are  woodworking, 
painting,  shoe  repairing,  and  to  some  extent  the  foun- 
dry. Even  with  this  assumption,  it  still  remains  an 
open  question  whether  work  in  special  shops  by  pupils 
from  these  grades  returns  an  educational  value  propor- 
tionate to  its  cost. 

Primarily,  the  industrial  training  offered  at  Gary 
aims  simply  at  the  enrichment  of  the  child's  school  ex- 
perience. To  some  extent  and  in  a  limited  number  of 
cases,  it  may  serve  a  useful  prevocational  purpose,  that 
is,  the  future  artisan  may  be  assisted  by  his  school  experi- 
ence to  select  his  vocation  intelligently.  But  for  voca- 
tional training  itself  the  experience  gained  is  too  slight 


INDUSTRIAL  WORK  129 

to  be  as  such  of  real  importance.  It  is  justified  not  be- 
cause it  introduces  boys  to  vocations,  but  because  it 
gives  their  constructive  instincts  and  abilities  something 
to  do  and  because  it  brings  them  into  sympathetic  touch 
with  the  modern  industrial  world. 

The  realization  of  this  aim,  in  so  far  as  concerns  the 
Emerson  and  Froebel  schools,  is  sought  through  main- 
tenance and  repair  jobs.  The  pupils  are  not  set  to  do 
tasks  devised  to  meet  definitely  conceived  educational 
ends;  rather,  the  educational  end  is  a  by-product.  The 
instructors  are  journeymen  mechanics,  who  receive  the 
regular  union  scale  of  wages.  Care  has  been  taken 
to  choose  men  who  are  intelligent,  kindly,  and  inter- 
ested in  boys;  the  instructors  are  patient,  helpful, 
and  industrious;  but,  as  might  be  expected,  they 
vary  greatly  in  respect  to  skill  as  teachers.  They  are 
not  apt  to  extract  the  intellectual  elements  from  a  given 
situation — that  is,  to  bring  out  the  reasons  for  a  particu- 
lar method  of  work  or  to  pursue  inquiries  beyond  the 
execution  of  the  task  in  hand.  Again,  the  tasks  them- 
selves are  determined  not  by  simple  educational  consid- 
erations, not  by  selection  on  educational  grounds  from 
the  large  mass  of  jobs  that  need  attention,  but  by  prac- 
tical daily  need  in  the  school  system  or  the  home.  Pu- 
pils engaged  in  painting  actually  assist  the  school  painter, 
who  is  also  school  instructor,  in  a  painting  job  required 
somewhere  in  the  school  system;  pupils  working  in  tin 
make  buckets  or  pails  for  which  there  is  or  will  be  a  use; 
pupils  engaged  in  cobbUng  mend  their  own  shoes;  and 


'i3o  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

the  boy's  task  is  not  cut  oflf  when  the  educational  purpose 
might  be  judged  to  have  been  served,  but  is  likely  to 
continue  until  the  practical  need  has  been  met. 

The  character  and  extent  of  the  productive  and  repair 
work  carried  on  in  the  various  shops  may  be  gathered 
from  the  following  items  taken  ahnost  at  random.  At 
the  Emerson,  the  machine  shop  turned  out  drilUng  pipes 
for  soap  retainers,  lock  castings,  woodworkers'  bench 
vises,  printing  chases,  and  made  repairs  to  arc  lamp, 
seats,  emery  grinder,  and  a  model  locomotive;  the  forge 
shop  produced  damper  rods  for  furnaces,  iron  brackets, 
stencil  knives,  stairway  railings;  the  foundry  turned  out 
castings  for  playground  equipment,  for  automatic  locks, 
for  lathes,  and  for  pump  valves;  from  the  printing  shop 
came  report  and  record  blanks,  program  schedules,  trans- 
fer cards,  excuse  blanks,  deposit  slips,  letterheads,  en- 
velopes, etc.  At  the  Froebel,  the  cabinet  making  shop 
carried  on  much  repair  work,  and  made,  besides,  window 
brackets,  building  blocks,  Montessori  sets,  and  thirty 
teachers'  desks;  in  sheet  metal  work,  dustpans,  desk 
trays,  water  buckets,  paper  trays,  mail  boxes,  and  Hght 
reflectors  are  reported;  the  productive  and  repair  work  in 
plumbing  included  the  installation  of  sinks,  basins,  and 
shower  baths,  the  repairing  of  drains,  faucets,  sinks,  etc. ; 
the  painting  shop  was  busy  in  refurbishing  outside  sashes 
and  frames,  repainting  classrooms,  shellacking  building 
blocks,  oiling  gymnasium  floor,  etc.  In  the  shoe  shop 
any  child  may  repair  his  own  shoes  or  shoes  belonging  to 
a  member  of  his  family.     The  child  may  furnish  material 


INDUSTRIAL  WORK  131 

or  buy  it  at  the  school.  In  general,  the  work  turned  out 
is  creditable,  but  it  is  of  course  manifestly  impossible  to 
determine  the  degree  to  which  the  instructor  has  par- 
ticipated. 

Somewhat  elaborate  practical  and  written  tests  were 
given  in  order  to  provide  an  objective  basis  for  judgment 
as  to  what  is  achieved  by  the  system  of  industrial  instruc- 
tion just  described.  For  example,  in  order  to  test  the 
work  done  in  the  machine  shop  of  the  Emerson  school,  the 
seven  high  school  students  who  had  had  the  longest 
experience  in  this  shop  were  provided  with  a  piece  of  soft 
rolled  steel,  which  they  were  required  to  manipulate  in 
accordance  with  the  outline  of  a  blueprint  furnished  to 
them.  Subsequently  the  boys  took  a  written  test  de- 
signed to  ascertain  how  far  they  comprehended  the  rea- 
sons for  what  they  had  done  and  also  whether  they  had 
been  led  to  see  the  wider  uses  and  implications  of  the 
machines  and  processes  that  they  had  been  employing. 
On  the  whole,  the  boys  displayed  confidence,  familiarity, 
and  a  fair  degree  of  skill  in  dealing  with  common  machine 
shop  operations,  but  oral  as  well  as  written  questions 
showed  that  their  grasp  did  not  penetrate  below  the  sur- 
face. They  gave  little  evidence  of  knowing  the  mechan- 
ism of  the  various  tools,  the  nature  of  the  materials  used, 
or  the  place  that  the  machine  shop  occupies  in  the  indus- 
trial world.  To  boys  working  in  the  foundry  a  test  in 
the  use  of  patterns  was  given.  On  the  whole,  their  work 
was  well  done ;  they  attacked  the  task  with  readiness  and 
confidence,  and  carried  it  through  in  a  businesslike  way, 


132  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

with  little  loss  of  time  through  mistakes  or  hesitation. 
A  written  examination  and  oral  questions  showed,  how- 
ever, that  only  limited  attempts  had  been  made  to  form 
a  background  of  ideas  and  knowledge  drawn  from  this 
and  related  industries.  Little  attention,  for  example, 
had  been  paid  to  illustration,  study,  or  even  enumeration 
of  the  products  of  the  great  mills  that  are  the  reason  for 
the  city's  existence.  Again,  in  the  sheet  metal  shop,  of 
seven  pupils  asked  to  make  a  galvanized  iron  pail,  four 
acquitted  themselves  creditably;  but  the  written  tests 
disclosed  a  poverty  of  information  and  thought,  though 
the  replies  of  eighth  grade  pupils  were  noticeably  more 
intelligent  and  better  informed  than  those  of  seventh 
grade  pupils.  In  general,  it  is  fair  to  say  that,  while  dis- 
playing considerable  practical  competence,  pupils  had 
not  been  led  to  reflect  and  had,  in  consequence,  extracted 
little  of  intellectual  value  from  their  shop  work. 

The  discussion  up  to  this  point  has  been  concerned 
entirely  with  the  Froebel  and  Emerson  schools.  At  the 
Jefferson  school,  a  single  combination  shop  is  provided, 
the  equipment  of  which  consists  of  several  woodworking 
benches,  a  hand  drill,  a  vise  for  holding  iron  pipe,  cutting 
and  threading  tools  for  the  same,  and  a  few  simple  tools 
for  sheet  metal  work.  At  one  end  is  a  stock  room  in 
charge  of  a  pupil  during  class  hours,  and  at  the  other 
a  steam  engine  which  supplies  power  for  the  electric 
light  plant. 

The  work  carried  on  differs  radically  in  principle 
from  that  of  the  two  schools  already  considered.     The 


INDUSTRIAL  WORK  133 

Froebel  and  Emerson  shops  endeavor  to  procure  educa- 
tional results  from  maintenance  and  repair  activities; 
the  Jefferson  shop  defines  its  objects  in  terms  of  the 
conventional  manual  training  philosophy.  Practical 
construction  cuts  Uttle  figure;  repairs  and  equipment 
are  attempted  only  on  a  very  inconsiderable  scale;  the 
bulk  of  the  work  takes  the  form  of  projects  for  home 
or  personal  use.  The  instructor  is  not  an  artisan,  but  a 
school  trained  man  of  enthusiasm  and  devotion;  the 
building  engineer  serves  as  his  assistant. 

The  schedule  of  the  Jefferson  school  provides  drawing 
and  bench  work,  one  hour  daily  for  twenty  weeks,  for 
children  from  the  first  to  the  lower  fifth  grade;  from  the 
upper  fifth  to  the  eighth  grade  the  schedule  calls  for 
twenty  weeks  of  shop  work  in  one  hour  periods  and  for 
half  as  much  drawing.  The  major  part  of  the  time  goes 
to  woodworking;  exercises  are  used,  followed  by  individ- 
ual or  school  projects;  the  pupils  built  the  tool  room,  shop 
cupboards,  and  bookcases  for  the  school.  A  small  amount 
of  metal  work  has  also  been  turned  out.  At  intervals 
of  three  weeks,  two  boys  are  assigned  to  assist  in  running 
the  heating  and  power  plant. 

In  this  connection  a  word  should  be  said  about  draw- 
ing and  handwork.  In  the  first  three  grades,  for 
example,  of  the  Emerson  and  Froebel  schools  a  daily 
period  is  scheduled  for  such  work.  While  there  are 
no  uniformly  planned  courses,  the  teaching  is  carried 
along  the  usual  lines  with  considerable  ability.  Above 
the    third    grade    pupils    choose    between    mechanical 


134  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

and  freehand  drawing — the  boys  commonly  electing 
the  former,  the  girls,  the  latter.  In  mechanical  draw- 
ing, the  children  below  the  sixth  grade  are  occupied  with 
drawing  wooden  objects  or  copying  and  modifying, 
according  to  directions,  a  series  of  blueprints — an  expedi- 
ent which  keeps  the  children  busy,  not  altogether  un- 
profitably,  without  requiring  much  attention  from  the 
instructor.  The  three  upper  elementary  grades  and  the 
high  school  offer  practical  instruction,  including  archi- 
tectural drawing,  well  adapted  to  the  interests  and 
capacities  of  the  pupils.  The  work  is  carefully  planned 
and  the  results  obtained  are  excellent.  Freehand  draw- 
ing in  the  elementary  grades  includes  practice  with  water 
color,  crayon,  and  design.  In  the  high  school  design  is 
especially  emphasized;  the  pupils  had  achieved  some 
good  work  in  book  covers,  metal,  and  costumes,  and  in 
still  Ufe  with  pencil  and  crayon. 

It  is  not  easy  to  express  a  definite  judgment  on  the 
type  of  industrial  work  carried  on  in  the  two  large  schools. 
Unquestionably,  the  reality,  the  genuineness  of  shop 
instruction  based  on  maintenance  work  makes  an  effec- 
tive appeal  to  the  boy.  He  is  interested  in  his  shop  work; 
he  enjoys  it.  "One  gains  a  strong  impression,"  writes 
Professor  Richards,  "that  at  Gary  school  is  not  a  second- 
ary thing  in  the  boy's  life,  but  that  it  is  the  big  thing. 
To  this  attitude  of  mind  the  shop  work  contributes  an 
important  element.  The  shops  themselves,  although 
conducted  with  considerable  freedom,  generally  reflect 
an  atmosphere  of  real  work,  and  the  pupils  are  often 


INDUSTRIAL  WORK  135 

found  successfully  carrying  on  operations  and  achieving 
results  ordinarily  judged  quite  beyond  the  capacity  of 
boys  of  their  age.  The  relations  between  the  boys  and 
the  instructors  are  for  the  most  part  satisfactory 
and  commendable.  The  instructors  as  a  rule  show 
much  patience  in  directing  the  boys,  helping  them 
out  of  difficulties,  and  answering  their  many  questions. 
In  some  of  the  shops  there  is  much  true  comradeship 
between  the  boys  and  the  instructors  built  on  mutual 
confidence  and  respect.  Furthermore,  the  pupils  un- 
doubtedly gain  a  first  hand  contact  with  many  real 
phases  of  industry,  and  a  healthy  stimulation  of  interest 
through  dealing  w'th  real  problems  and  real  quantities. 
All  this  means  a  vitality  and  educative  influence  far 
superior  to  the  conventional  manual  training." 

On  the  other  hand,  the  work  is  narrow  in  scope,  empir- 
ical in  method.  Urgent  demands  to  make  this  or  that 
repair  block  instruction;  the  execution  of  orders  may 
leave  Uttle  time  for  discussion  of  principles  involved  or  of 
the  methods  by  which  similar  tasks  are  d'sposed  of  in 
current  industrial  and  commercial  practice.  In  some 
shops,  indeed,  the  artisan-instructor  is  at  times  called 
away  and  the  pupils  left  for  the  time  without  guidance. 
The  limitations  pointed  out  do  not,  however,  affect 
all  shops  equally.  Plumbing  suffers  most  seriously; 
in  the  forge  shop,  foundry,  sheet  metal,  and  par- 
ticularly in  the  printing  shop,  where  the  entire  class 
is  often  at  work  on  one  job  or  several  similar  jobs, 
group  or  individual  instruction  is  feasible. 


136  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

To  instruction  on  the  basis  of  maintenance  and  repair, 
there  is  the  further  objection  that  the  opportunities 
which  are  thus  developed  are  not  necessarily  those  that 
are  of  the  highest  educational  value.  Moreover,  there 
may  prove  to  be  a  lack  of  sufficient  material  and  of  suf- 
ficient variety,  unless  the  school  system  grows  steadil>- 
and  the  shops  are  confined  to  two  or  three  central  schools. 
If,  for  example,  the  school  system  should  come  to  consist 
wholly  of  buildings  of  the  Froebel  and  Emerson  type, 
each  with  a  full  complement  of  shops,  maintenance  and 
repair  might  fall  short  of  providing  educative  tasks 
enough  to  keep  the  shops  throughout  the  schools  effec- 
tively occupied. 

The  shop  men  are  themselves  doubtless  under  the  im- 
pression that  they  are  constantly  giving  instruction,  be- 
cause they  are  continuously  called  on  for  directions  and 
explanations.  But  the  truth  is  that  instruction  in  a 
large  sense  has  not  been  a  part  of  the  serious  business  of 
the  department.  The  pupils  take  no  notes;  no  tests  of 
shop  or  industrial  information  have  been  made;  no 
practical  correlations  of  shop  experience  with  mathe- 
matics or  science  work  were  observed;  no  charts  or 
sketches  on  the  blackboard  are  employed;  trade  cata- 
logues, abounding  in  illustrative  matter,  have  been  used 
only  to  a  very  limited  extent.  In  some  cases,  it  is  hardly 
an  overstatement  to  say  that  the  shop  work  represents 
a  maximum  of  acti\'ity  with  a  minimum  of  thought  as  to 
the  thing  done.  In  part,  these  defects  are  ascribable  to 
the  employment  of  artisan  teachers;  but  they  could  un- 


INDUSTRIAL  WORK  137 

doubtedly  be  more  or  less  fully  remedied  by  adequate 
supervision. 

As  an  offset  to  the  defects  of  the  maintenance  and 
repair  system,  it  may  be  urged  that  it  is  after  all  the  only 
system  available  under  the  financial  conditions  that  ob- 
tain at  Gary.  This  argument,  however,  relies  on  the 
assumption  that  the  shops  are  self-supporting.  Were 
this  the  case,  it  might  well  be  asked  whether  a  school 
system  unable  to  afford  shops  organized  on  educational 
principles  does  not  do  well  to  organize  them  on  the  main- 
tenance basis.  The  situation,  however,  is  neither  so 
simple,  nor  so  favorable  to  the  maintenance  type  of  or- 
ganization. It  will  appear,  when  we  come  to  the  discus- 
sion of  school  costs,  that,  when  credit  is  allowed  for 
labor  and  material  cost  of  production,  even  the  shops 
which  are  operated  primarily  on  the  maintenance  basis 
are  only  69  per  cent,  self-supporting.  The  question  is 
therefore  whether  the  sum  needed  to  make  up  the  deficit 
could  not  be  put  to  more  effective  use.  A  positive  an- 
swer can  hardly  be  given  at  this  time.  Moreover,  before 
it  is  attempted,  the  Gary  shops  should  be  given  a  chance 
to  show  how  far  the  defects  and  objections  urged  in  this 
chapter  can  be  overcome  by  effective  supervision,  and 
a  further  chance  to  determine  experimentally  how  far  the 
maintenance  plan  can,  without  perhaps  greatly  increas- 
ing the  expense,  be  so  qualified  as  to  meet  the  objections 
which  we  have  urged. 

It  remains  to  be  emphasized  that  the  shop  work  at 
Gary  is  not  primarily  a  preparation  for  earning  a  liveli- 


138  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

hood  as  a  mechanic  or  artisan.  In  the  long  run,  the 
importance  of  the  work  depends  on  its  general  educa- 
tional value — on  what  it  does  to  develop  the  child's 
senses,  to  broaden  his  vision,  and  to  furnish  an  outlet 
for  abilities  that  might  otherwise  go  uncultivated.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  is  only  fair  to  add  that  the  training 
received  by  some  pupils  in  some  of  the  shops  proves  of 
direct  vocational  value  when  they  enter  certain  of  the 
industries  on  which  the  prosperity  of  the  city  is  based. 


XI.    HOUSEHOLD  ARTS» 

IN  THE  preceding  chapter,  the  point  was  made  that 
the  industrial  work  for  boys  is  not  vocational  in 
aim.  The  shop  activities  are  not  meant  to  make 
carpenters,  painters,  and  plumbers,  but  to  furnish  growing 
boys  with  concrete  opportunities  for  the  development  of 
senses  and  muscles,  and  concrete  experiences  which  will 
enable  them  to  participate  intelligently  in  a  social  order 
in  which  industry  bulks  large.  The  same  holds  of  the 
practical  work  for  girls;  it  is  not  primarily  intended  to 
make  expert  seamstresses  or  teachers  of  cooking.  How- 
ever, instruction  in  cooking  and  sewing  is  not  on  pre- 
cisely the  same  footing  as  instruction  in  foundry  work  or 
carpentry;  for,  in  addition  to  their  educative  value, 
the  household  arts  carry  for  girls  in  general  a  large  pros- 
pect of  actual  application. 

Cooking  is  taught  regularly  in  the  elementary  school 
in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades,  with  pupils  from  the 
lower  grades  acting  as  helpers.  The  instruction  is  con- 
densed into  courses  from  ten  to  thirteen  weeks  in  length 
one  or  two  hours  daily.  Pupils  must  enroll  for  at  least 
one  course  one  hour  daily,  and  may  take  more.     While 


ipor  detailed  account,  see  report  on  Household  Arts,  by  Eva  W.  White. 

139 


140  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

cooking  is  thus  compulsory  for  elementary  pupils,  it  is 
optional  for  high  school  girls,  and  may  be  elected  by 
them  in  the  ninth,  tenth,  eleventh,  and  twelfth  grades 
at  the  Emerson  and  Froebel  schools,  which  alone  have 
high  school  students.  In  point  of  fact,  few  high  school 
students  pursue  the  subject. 

It  is  difficult  to  determine  definitely  the  content  of  the 
cooking  instruction  in  either  the  elementary  schools  or 
the  high  schools,  since  there  was  no  systematic  course 
of  study  for  either  all  schools  or  any  one  school.  More- 
over, the  year  of  the  survey  chanced  to  be  one  of  unusual 
disorganization.  The  teacher  at  Froebel  had  been  in  the 
system  only  since  September  and  was  preparing  to  leave, 
as  was  also  the  instructor  at  Emerson.  Teachers 
changed  at  Jefferson  during  the  spring,  and  at  Glen  Park 
all  cooking  gave  way  in  April  to  gardening,  while  at 
Beveridge  nothing  more  than  the  preparation  of  the 
school  luncheon  has  ever  been  attempted.  However, 
effort  was  being  made — at  least  at  the  Emerson,  Froebel, 
Jefferson,  and  Glen  Park  schools — to  meet  the  minimum 
elementary,  and  at  Emerson  and  Froebel  the  minimum 
high  school,  requirements  of  the  State  Department  of 
Pubhc  Instruction.  Beyond  these  minimum  require- 
ments, each  teacher  is  free  to  plan  and  to  execute  such 
daily  tasks  as  in  her  judgment  are  calculated  to  meet 
local  and  individual  needs. 

The  preparation  of  food  for  the  cafeteria  forms  the 
basis  of  the  Gary  work  whether  of  elementary  or  high 
school  grade.     There  are  no  cooking  laboratories  other 


p^ 


HOUSEHOLD  ARTS 


141 


than  those  employed  in  the  preparation  of  the  noon 
luncheon.  The  same  equipment  is  used  by  both  ele- 
mentary and  high  school  students  and  the  same  instruc- 
tor directs  both  groups.  The  children  help  to  prepare 
the  food,  set  the  tables,  and  do  the  serving,  the  older 
pupils  being  held  responsible  for  the  more  difficult  tasks. 
Under  these  conditions,  the  content  of  the  cooking 
instruction  can  be  best  inferred  from  typical  menus : 


MONDAY 

Cream  of  tomato  soup 
Boiled  ham 
Baked  potatoes 
Tuna  fish  salad 
Tomato  salad 
Cup  cake 
Peach  dumplings 


TUESDAY 


Roast  pork 
Sweet  potatoes 
Stewed  tomatoes 
Cabbage  salad 
Brown  betty 
Chocolate  cream 


WEDXESDAY 

Lima  bean  soup 
Roast  beef 
Boiled  potatoes 
Banana  salad 
Washington  pie 
Stewed  prunes 


THURSDAY 

Hot  roast  beef  sandwiches 
Scalloped  meat 
Steamed  cabbage 
Ham  sandwich 
Orange  salad 
Marble  cake 
Steamed  pudding 
Lemon  cookies 


It  is  possible  to  cover  the  field  by  means  of  varied 
menus  quite  as  thoroughly  as  by  means  of  definitely 
organized  courses,  provided  the  teacher  keeps  track  of 
what  the  pupils  have  done  and  what  remains  for  them 
to  do.     Unfortunately,  however,  except  in  one  school 


142  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

there  were  no  such  records,  so  that  between  the  absence 
of  records  and  the  frequent  change  of  teachers,  there 
was  danger  of  repetition  without  progress. 

The  classes  in  cooking  are  always  small,  never  con- 
taining over  twenty  and  averaging  from  twelve  to 
fifteen.  This  would  be  admirable,  if  the  group  were 
homogeneous ;  unfortunately,  a  class  in  cooking  is  seldom 
made  up  of  pupils  from  one  grade  and  not  always  from 
closely  related  grades.  Not  infrequently  a  class  com- 
prises pupils  from  the  third  to  the  ninth  grades.  To  be 
sure,  the  younger  children,  the  so-called  "helpers,"  are 
supposed  to  assist  the  older;  but  their  presence  renders 
difficult  concentration  of  attention  upon  the  needs  of  the 
advanced  pupils. 

The  time  allowance  for  cooking  is  unusually  liberal. 
On  the  basis  of  2  hours  per  day  for  5  days  a  week  for  13 
weeks,  130  hours  are  offered  as  compared  with  2  hours 
per  week  for  40  weeks  in  the  average  school  system. 
On  the  basis  of  the  minimum  of  i  hour  per  day  for  10 
weeks,  50  hours  are  devoted  to  this  subject.  But 
the  allowance  does  not  work  out  in  practice.  Term 
lengths  vary  in  the  different  schools;  the  instruction 
periods  are  sometimes  one  hour,  sometimes  two.  More- 
over, the  groups  are  in  continuous  flux.  Pupils  are 
withdrawn  in  the  course  of  a  term;  new  pupils  are  ad- 
mitted irregularly.  Thus,  for  example,  eighth  grade 
pupils  at  Emerson  had  one  hour  of  cooking  daily  in  the 
first  term  of  1915-16,  while  those  who  took  cooking  in 
the  second  term  had  twice  as  much.     At  Froebel,  on  the 


HOUSEHOLD  ARTS  143 

other  hand,  the  eighth  grade  pupils  were  enrolled  for 
two  hours  during  the  first  and  second  terms,  but  in  the 
other  terms  for  a  single  period.  Again,  the  helper  system 
extends  at  Emerson  as  low  as  the  third  grade,  but  at 
Froebel  not  below  the  fourth. 

The  teachers  fall  into  three  groups.  Emerson,  Froe- 
bel, and  Jefferson  have  professionally  trained  instructors. 
Their  salaries  range  from  $600  to  $1,000.  At  Glen  Park 
a  regular  teacher  with  slight  special  preparation  guides 
the  work,  and  at  Beveridge  a  practical  housekeeper,  with 
no  professional  training,  is  in  charge.  Practical  house- 
keepers receive  from  $40  to  $65  a  month. 

As  stated  before,  the  work  in  cooking  centers  about 
the  school  luncheon.  Many  of  the  children  go  home  at 
the  noon  recess;  many  get  their  entire  luncheon  at  school, 
while  others  bring  a  luncheon  from  home,  supplementing 
it  with  hot  soup,  cocoa,  or  dessert.  The  lunch  rooms 
are  open  from  11:15  to  1:15.  During  1915-16  Emerson 
served  44,582  persons,  including  teachers  and  guests; 
Froebel,  17,842;  and  Jefferson,  7,889.  The  quaHty  of 
the  food  is  good,  the  prices  are  reasonable.  The  average 
luncheon  charge  per  person  at  Emerson  was  13.9  cents; 
at  Froebel,  14.2  cents;  and  at  Jefferson,  15  cents. 

The  entire  operating  expenses  of  the  cooking  depart- 
ments, with  the  exception  of  fuel  and  the  salaries  of  the 
instructors  at  Emerson  and  Froebel  and  half  the  salary 
of  the  teacher  at  Jefferson,  were  met  from  the  proceeds  of 
the  cafeteria.  The  experience  of  these  schools  thus 
demonstrates  that  cooking  departments  of  the   Gary 


144  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

type  may  be  operated,  after  the  original  capital  outlay, 
without  cost  to  the  system,  other  than  for  minor  items 
and  for  the  salaries  of  professionally  trained  teachers,  and 
may  even  be  made  to  pay  a  part  of  these  expenses. 

A  single  or  simple  verdict  on  the  instruction  in  cooking 
at  Gary  is  impossible,  for  there  are  two  sides  to  almost 
every  one  of  its  characteristic  features.  For  example, 
the  introduction  of  domestic  arts  into  the  lower  grades 
through  the  helper  system  revives  in  a  measure  the 
wholesome  participation  of  the  child  in  the  activities 
of  the  home — an  order  now  all  too  rapidly  passing  away. 
But  the  helper  system,  as  has  been  pointed  out  in  other 
connections,  is  not  free  from  dangers  and  drawbacks. 
Children  cannot  really  gain  unless  they  are  helping  older 
persons  who  fully  understand  what  they  are  engaged  in 
doing.  Too  often  the  older  girls  do  not  measure  up  to 
this  standard.  The  instructors  labor  therefore  at  a 
threefold  task — they  guide  the  older  girls,  their  proper 
task,  keep  the  helpers  out  of  mischief,  and  must  have 
the  school  luncheon  ready  at  the  stroke  of  eleven.  Under 
this  burden  the  capable  instructor  becomes  discouraged; 
the  weak  instructor  solves  the  problem  by  turning  over 
to  the  practical  cook  the  preparation  of  the  important 
dishes. 

So  also  the  cafeteria.  Much  is  to  be  said  in  its  favor. 
Pupils  learn  to  work  with  proper  regard  for  time,  to  handle 
quantities,  to  consider  money  values,  to  contrive  dietetic 
combinations.  Thus  the  cafeteria  not  only  supplies  the 
school  lunch,  but  enlarges  the  scope  of  school  work  in 


HOUSEHOLD  ARTS  145 

cooking  and  gives  practical  point  to  the  child's  effort  and 
interest.  But  danger  lurks  in  the  division  of  responsi- 
bility. One  and  the  same  individual  at  one  and  the 
same  time  teaches  cooking  and  conducts  a  commercial 
enterprise;  few  persons  are  equally  interested  and  equally 
effective  in  both  fields.  When,  for  example,  the  instruc- 
tor's attention  inclines  to  the  commercial  side,  the  pupil 
suffers.  Little  or  no  risk  can  be  taken  with  the  food,  for 
the  quantities  are  large  and  the  hour  approaches.  The 
practical  cook  therefore  scarcely  realizes  how  often  she 
prompts  the  pupUs  or  does  things  for  them ;  nor  does  the 
teacher  realize  how  small  a  part  of  the  responsibility  for 
the  menu  is  borne  by  the  children.  The  theory  that 
children  must  learn  to  cook  by  cooking  is  sound.  But, 
in  practice,  the  importance  of  the  interests  at  stake  seri- 
ously infringes  on  educational  independence.  In  the  main, 
the  exigencies  of  the  situation  tie  the  pupils  to  recipes — 
paid  helpers  and  instructors  constantly  aiding  even 
when  recipes  are  followed.  So  wedded  are  the  pupils  to 
recipes  that  they  are  well  nigh  helpless  without  them. 

Practical  and  written  individual  tests  were  given  to 
pupils  in  the  higher  elementary  grades  in  order  to  ascer- 
tain what  they  could  do  and  with  what  degree  of  intelli- 
gence. They  were  asked,  for  example,  to  cook  potatoes, 
to  bake  a  cake,  to  prepare  a  salad  or  dessert.  In  a 
majority  of  cases,  the  results  were  satisfactory,  except 
for  the  fact  that  all  the  pupils  used  recipes,  failures 
occurring  even  under  these  conditions.  Written  ques- 
tions requiring  the  pupils  to  explain  some  of  the  funda- 


146  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

mental  principles  of  good  housekeeping — i.  e.,  what  are 
the  essentials  of  a  good  meal,  what  are  the  main  classifica- 
tions of  food,  what  determines  the  kinds  of  food  needed 
— were  for  the  most  part  meagerly  answered.  Evidently 
little  effort  had  been  made  to  explain  the  bearing  or  draw 
out  the  implication  of  the  practical  work  carried  on  in  the 
cafeteria.  In  this  respect  the  same  defects  were  revealed 
as  were  remarked  by  Professor  Richards  in  the  industrial 
work.  Obviously,  the  mere  doing  of  concrete  tasks  does 
not  carry  the  pupil  far  enough  to  answer  legitimate  edu- 
cational requirements. 

It  must  be  frankly  admitted,  therefore,  that  the  prac- 
tical outcome  of  the  cooking  instruction  at  Gary  is  disap- 
pointing. It  must  also  be  frankly  admitted  that  home 
making  in  its  well  rounded  aspects  has  not  been  devel- 
oped, and  cannot  be  so  long  as  cooking  is  confined  almost 
entirely  to  the  cafeteria. 

What  now  of  the  sewing?  Instruction  in  sewing  at 
Gary  centers  around  the  practical  needs  of  the  children. 
Accordingly,  no  course  of  study  is  mapped  out.  Pupils 
work  on  what  they  want  or  need  to  make,  or  on  garments 
suggested  by  parents.  For  example,  a  younger  sister 
needs  a  dress,  which  at  once  becomes  a  project,  even 
though  the  elder  sister,  who  is  expected  to  make  it,  does 
not  know  how.  In  such  a  case  the  instructor  cuts  the 
dress,  while  the  pupil  looks  on.  In  the  making,  all  the 
elementary  stitches  are  explained  and  tried  before  the 
child  proceeds.  Over-refinement  of  execution  is,  of 
course,  not  emphasized,  as  the  child  would  become  bored 


HOUSEHOLD  ARTS  147 

and  the  mother  impatient  at  the  delay  in  finishing  the 
article.  Thus,  no  time  is  lost  on  preparatory  stitches  or 
on  samplers;  the  children  work  from  the  beginning  on 
real  things.  Parents  provide  the  necessary  materials, 
or  teachers  buy  them  at  wholesale  and  sell  them  to  the 
pupils  at  cost. 

While  sewing  is  optional  for  high  school  girls,  elemen- 
tary pupils  are  required  to  take  a  minimum  of  fifty  hours 
in  either  the  seventh  or  eighth  grade.  As  in  cooking, 
most  of  the  elementary  pupils  choose  to  take  more.  It 
was  also  found  that  greater  numbers  were  enrolled  in  the 
sewing  classes  than  in  cooking  and  at  a  much  younger 
age.  The  courses  run  from  ten  to  thirteen  weeks  in 
length,  varying  with  the  school. 

Although  the  majority  of  the  pupils  in  the  sewing 
classes  come  from  the  fifth  and  upper  grades,  pupils  as 
young  as  those  of  the  third  grade  are  found  engaged  in 
class  work.  They  are  usually  enrolled  as  helpers,  but 
handled  as  students.  In  fact,  the  helper  system  is  not  so 
conspicuous  in  the  sewing  as  in  the  cooking  department. 
Only  in  rare  instances  is  it  employed,  in  which  event,  as  a 
rule,  the  helpers  are  seated  in  groups  at  the  side  or  in  the 
corner  of  the  room.  The  instructors  give  them  a  certain 
amount  of  attention,  teaching  them  crocheting  stitches, 
how  to  knit,  or  how  to  put  an  article  of  underwear  to- 
gether. They  apparently  enjoy  the  sewing  room,  and 
seemingly  do  not  annoy  or  hinder  the  work  of  the  older 
pupUs,  who  have  no  responsibility  for  them. 

At  Emerson,  sewing  is  in  charge  of  an  academically 


148  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

trained  teacher,  who  also  teaches  geography  and  history. 
At  Froebel,  the  domestic  science  instructor  directs  the 
work.  In  each  school  there  is  a  practical  woman  assist- 
ant, and  these  assistants  do  most  of  the  teaching.  This 
arrangement  should  bring  about  an  admirable  balance. 
The  practical  woman  learns  approved  methods  of  instruc- 
tion and  comes  to  appreciate  the  step-by-step  explana- 
tion necessary  in  guiding  pupils,  while  the  professionally 
trained  teacher  learns  the  "short  cuts"  of  trade  work. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  find  a  harder  working  corps 
of  trade  assistants  than  those  in  the  sewing  departments 
of  Emerson  and  Froebel.  They  teach  seven  hours  a  day 
and  are  constantly  on  the  alert.  The  teaching  is  highly 
individualized,  and,  although  the  pupils  are  assembled 
in  classes,  no  two  members  are  likely  to  be  at  work  on 
the  same  kind  of  article,  or  to  be  at  the  same  point  even 
if  making  the  same  thing.  Each  step  is  taught  to  the  in- 
dividual child  as  it  comes  up. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  sewing  instruction  in  the  past 
has  erred  by  too  close  application  to  the  A,  B,  C's  of 
technique,  and  by  devoting  too  much  time  to  drill  on 
valueless  objects.  Gary  has  done  well  to  break  away 
from  this  lock  step  procedure.  But  in  attempting  to 
construct  a  course  in  sewing  around  personal  and  family 
needs,  it  is  quite  possible  that  Gary  has  gone  to  the  other 
extreme. 

The  Gary  work  in  sewing  assumes  that  the  reality  of 
the  task  assures  the  child's  interest  and  that,  as  compared 
with  this,  logical  sequence  in  the  tasks  set  is  of  inferior 


tin 


HOUSEHOLD  ARTS  149 

importance.  The  proposition  cannot,  however,  be  ac- 
cepted in  this  simple  form.  While  the  older  model  exer- 
cises have  been  rightly  banished,  some  form  of  regular 
progress  is  unquestionably  indispensable.  It  is  the 
teacher's  business  to  advance  the  child  more  or  less 
regularly  through  the  main  steps  of  plain  sewing,  dress- 
making, and  millinery,  with  constant  regard  at  each  step 
for  what  is  possible.  Ability  to  do  things  and  to  do  them 
well  is  desirable,  but  it  is  also  important  that  children 
give  attention  to  the  kind  and  character  of  the  garments 
required  for  different  purposes,  to  the  worth  and  quality 
of  different  fabrics,  to  dyes,  and  to  a  multitude  of  other 
matters  essential  to  the  proper  clothing  of  a  modern 
family. 

Owing  to  the  lack  of  appropriate  records,  it  was  im- 
possible to  determine  the  amount  of  sewing  the  children 
had  had  or  to  judge  their  accomplishments  in  the  light 
of  the  amount  of  time  given  to  their  training.  Observa- 
tions of  the  classroom  work  and  inspection  of  garments 
yielded  a  few  vivid  impressions. 

In  the  first  place,  the  standard  of  accomplishment  is 
by  no  means  high.  In  the  lower  grades  this  may  be  due 
to  the  fact  that  pupils  with  little  or  no  prior  experience 
often  begin  at  once  to  make  garments.  Under  these  con- 
ditions a  finished  product  of  high  quality  could  not  be  ex- 
pected. Much  of  the  work  of  the  advanced  pupils  is  also 
below  standard.  While  it  is  true  that  trade  work  and 
school  instruction  differ,  still,  in  so  far  as  the  processes  are 
common,  the  home  making  standard  should  equal  the 


ISO  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

trade  standard.  Gary  certainly  judges  its  products  more 
leniently  than  does  the  trade. 

Again,  the  instruction  is  hardly  calculated  to  result  in 
capacity  to  do  independent  work.  Obviously,  not  much 
can  be  expected  at  the  outset  of  children  who  begin  their 
school  work  in  sewing  with  garment  making.  The  dif- 
ficulty is  that  throughout  the  course  the  teachers  are  apt 
to  do  so  much  of  the  thinking  that  it  is  doubtful  whether 
many  pupils  can,  on  completing  their  course,  put  a  dress 
together  by  themselves.  There  are,  to  be  sure,  excep- 
tions and  for  these  the  system  is  entitled  to  full  credit. 
On  the  whole,  however,  it  remains  true  that  sufficient 
drill  is  not  given  in  the  principles  of  garment  making, 
nor  is  the  power  to  think,  as  applied  to  sewing  and  gar- 
ment construction,  satisfactorily  developed. 

Two  written  tests  were  given  high  school  students  to 
ascertain  whether  the  explanatory  and  supplementary 
instruction  was  sufficient  to  make  the  practical  work 
intelligible.  Such  questions  as  these  were  asked:  Ex- 
plain a  French  seam.  Give  an  example  of  its  use.  How 
do  you  test  a  pattern?  What  points  should  be  remem- 
bered in  sewing  a  sleeve  into  a  garment?  The  pupils 
did  reasonably  well  with  questions  calling  for  facts  and 
for  information  related  closely  to  their  experiences,  but 
they  were  weak  when  the  questions  called  for  general 
information  or  reasoned  answers.  In  justice  to  them, 
however,  it  should  be  said  that  there  is  practically  no 
class  discussion.  And  in  justice  to  the  teachers,  it  should 
be  remembered  that  only  a  small  number  of  pupils  were 


HOUSEHOLD  ARTS  151 

tested,  that  the  courses  in  sewing  are  narrow,  and  there 
is  no  leeway  for  related  work.  Though  the  teachers 
recognize  the  value  of  supplementary  comment  and  in- 
struction, the  opportunities  for  them  are  very  limited. 

In  the  household  arts  as  in  the  industrial  work,  Gary's 
experience  shows  that  mere  practical  occupation  is  not 
alone  broadly  educative.  There  are  indeed  physical, 
social,  and  intellectual  values  in  these  practical  activities ; 
but  the  values  do  not  spontaneously  and  necessarily  ac- 
crue to  the  individual  workers.  Rather  they  require  to 
be  developed,  and  therein  Hes  the  opportunity  for  the 
trained  teacher  and  supervisor. 


XII.    PHYSICAL  TRAINING  AND  PLAY^ 

THE  Gary  authorities  take  a  broad  view  of  the 
place  of  physical  education  in  modern  education, 
giving  to  it  an  emphasis  double  that  of  the  average 
American  city.  In  the  three  largest  schools,  the  first 
four  grades  ordinarily  have  two  hours  of  physical  train- 
ing and  play  daily,  and  all  upper  grades  at  least  one  hour. 
Even  the  very  smallest  schools  give  some  time  to  daily 
exercise  and  physical  recreation. 

The  facilities  for  carrying  out  this  program  are  un- 
usually extensive.  Of  the  nine  schools,  all  except  two 
have  gymnasiums,  ranging  from  600  square  feet  at  24th 
Avenue  to  7,956  at  Froebel.  Two  schools — Emerson 
and  Froebel — have  swimming  pools.  All  have  play- 
grounds, ranging  from  5,300  square  feet  at  the  two  room 
24th  Avenue  school  to  84,496  at  Emerson.  Three — 
Emerson,  Froebel,  and  Jefferson — possess  athletic  fields,^ 
the  smallest,  at  Jefferson,  containing  32,130  square  feet, 
and  the  largest,  at  Emerson,  173,602.  Thus,  however 
small  the  school  and  humble  the  plant,  there  are  out- 
side provisions  for  play. 

'For  detailed  account,  see  report  on  Physical  Training  and  Play,  by 
Lee  F.  Hanmer. 

^Those  of  Emerson  and  Froebel  are  owned  by  the  city,  but  operated 
by  the  board  of  education. 

IS2 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING  AND  PLAY  153 

Fifteen  physical  training  teachers,  as  a  whole  well 
equipped,  have  charge  of  the  "play"  activities.  They 
receive  from  $600  to  $1,000  per  year  and  average  $859; 
by  assisting  in  special  activities  outside  of  the  regular 
day  schools  they  bring  their  average  annual  compensa- 
tion up  to  $998,  The  entire  amount  paid  to  them  for 
regular  day  school  services  amounted  in  19 15-16  to 
$11,825.25,  making  the  per  pupil  cost  for  teachers  alone 
$2.09  on  total  enrollment,  or  $2.86  on  average  daily 
attendance. 

There  is  also  a  supervisor,  who,  in  addition  to  regular 
teaching  duties,  has  general  jurisdiction  over  all.  His 
supervisory  duties  are,  however,  ill  defined,  and  he  has 
neither  the  time  nor  the  authority  to  organi2e  and  stand- 
ardize the  instruction,  with  the  result  that  teachers  work 
more  or  less  independently  of  each  other. 

The  staff  thus  made  up  covers  everything  done  in 
physical  training.  Classroom  teachers  are  not  required 
to  give  any  attention  whatever  to  the  subject. 
There  is  no  marching  to  and  from  classes,  there  are 
no  "setting  up"  or  breathing  exercises  given  in  the 
classrooms,  and  regular  teachers  do  not  concern  them- 
selves about  posture.  Only  in  the  small  schools  on  the 
outskirts  of  the  city  do  the  teachers  in  charge  attend 
to  the  physical  training.  It  is  possible  that  here  and 
there  a  classroom  teacher,  prompted  by  personal  interest 
in  good  posture  and  right  physical  development,  may 
give  some  drill  in  proper  walking,  standing,  and  sitting, 
but  no  teacher  is  expected  or  required  to  do  so.     The 


154  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

physical  education  of  the  children,  therefore,  centers 
almost  exclusively  in  the  gymnasium,  swimming  pool, 
and  playground. 

The  department  prefers  out  of  door  work,  but  in  prac- 
tice the  gymnasiums  are  used  more  than  the  playgrounds. 
These  are  open  for  classes  six  hours  daily,  also  for  play 
during  the  two  hour  luncheon  period  and  for  an  hour  after 
school,  that  is,  they  are  open  from  8:15  to  5  o'clock. 
Accordingly,  the  physical  training  teachers  have  a  seven 
hour  day.  They  teach  six  hours,  look  after  the  gymna-" 
slums  during  the  two  hour  luncheon  period,  and  also  have 
charge  of  the  after  school  play  activities.  Their  burdens 
are  further  increased  by  the  large  classes  which  they  are 
frequently  called  upon  to  handle.  Thus  a  teacher  at 
Jefferson  has  six  groups  a  day,  in  all  close  to  700  pupils. 
The  separate  hourly  divisions,  varying  from  76  to  147, 
contain  boys  of  all  school  ages  and  from  the  first  to  the 
eighth  grades.  Occasionally,  groups  of  a  single  class  of 
from  12  to  15  pupils  are  found,  but  the  larger  groups  are 
more  common.  However,  the  attendance  often  falls  be- 
low the  scheduled  number,  because  pupils  may  be  excused 
from  play  in  order  to  go  to  the  library,  to  attend  relig- 
ious instruction,  or  to  assist  at  home,  and,  further,  be- 
cause one  hour  of  physical  training  is  optional  whenever 
two  hours  are  assigned. 

Under  these  conditions,  exercises  and  games  suited  to 
each  of  the  different  age  and  grade  groups  cannot  be 
given.  Consequently,  "free  play"  predominates,  dan- 
gerously near  to  the  exclusion  of  everything  else.    This 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING  AND  PLAY  155 

"free  play"  is  of  an  aimless,  running  about,  and  "fool- 
ing" character  that  has  little  value  except  as  a  means  of 
"letting  off  steam"  and  stimulating  blood  circulation — 
both  of  which  are  desirable,  but  may  be  secured  inciden- 
tally in  connection  with  a  more  constructive  use  of  play 
time.  Even  in  the  brief  periods  of  calisthenic  exercises 
it  is  not  unusual  to  see  several  pupils  standing  idly  in 
their  places  or  taking  the  exercises  Ustlessly  and  incor- 
rectly. Snappy,  vigorous  work  is  not  insisted  upon. 
Hence,  much  of  the  physical  value  of  the  exercise  is  lost 
and  the  habit  of  doing  work  in  a  slipshod  manner  is 
formed.  The  general  aspect  of  playground  and  gym- 
nasium  suggests,  indeed,  not  school  training,  aiming  to 
bring  about  definite  results,  but  rather  the  more  or  less 
unorganized,  though  in  itself  wholesome,  play  appropri- 
ate to  public  playgrounds. 

Nor  can  it  be  said  that  proper  oversight  is  employed 
in  checking  up  the  work,  for  the  roll  is  not  regularly  called 
and  careful  records  are  not  available.  Physical  examina- 
tions are  not  systematically  made  and  no  record  of  physi- 
cal development  is  kept.  Several  instances  were  found 
of  late  comers  in  the  high  school  who  were  to  be  graduated 
without  having  had  any  physical  training  or  any  atten- 
tion whatever  given  to  their  physical  development.  The 
physician  in  charge  of  medical  inspection  has  recently 
undertaken,  with  some  volunteer  assistance  from  local 
hospital  nurses,  to  make  physical  examinations  and  keep 
records  of  the  physical  progress  of  the  children.  His 
chief  tasks,  however,  are  to  guard  against  the  spread  of 


iS6  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

communicable  diseases,  examine  for  defects  of  eyes,  ears, 
and  throat,  and  exercise  general  oversight  of  heating, 
lighting,  ventilation,  and  sanitation. 

The  most  systematic  work  seems  to  be  done  in  the 
swimming  pools,  to  which  all  classes  go  at  regular  inter- 
vals. The  children  are  taught  to  swim  and  dive,  and 
tests  of  skill  and  speed  add  zest  and  interest  to  this 
branch  of  the  work.  Life  saving  and  first  aid  are  also 
taught  and  well  mastered  by  drill.  Very  little  use  is 
made  of  group  leaders,  although  much  might  be  done  in 
this  way  in  handling  the  large  numbers. 

At  times  efforts  are  made  to  correlate  the  activities  of 
the  play  periods  with  the  academic  work.  For  instance, 
drill  in  numbers  is  secured  by  the  use  of  games  which  re- 
quire the  players  to  keep  their  individual  or  team  scores; 
points  are  added,  penalties  subtracted,  totals  divided 
to  get  averages,  etc.  The  pupil  who  cannot  do  this  is  at 
such  a  disadvantage,  it  is  claimed,  that  he  feels  the 
necessity  of  improving  his  number  work.  It  also  gives 
him  a  practical  demonstration  of  the  value  and  applica- 
tion of  his  classroom  studies.  Much  playground  appara- 
tus has  been  made  in  the  school  shops  and  installed  by  the 
children  under  the  direction  of  the  physical  training 
teacher.  Equipment  thus  secured  seems  to  be  more 
highly  appreciated,  and  added  interest  is  undoubtedly 
given  to  the  shop  work. 

For  some  years  certain  physical  tests  for  elementary 
and  secondary  school  boys  have  been  used  quite  gener- 
ally throughout  the  United  States.     They  are  known  as 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING  AND  PLAY  157 

the  athletic  badge  tests.  These  are  not  a  complete  meas- 
urement of  physical  efficiency,  but  serve  as  a  fair  indica- 
tion of  heart,  lung,  and  general  muscular  development. 
The  tests  consist  of  a  run,  a  jump,  and  a  pull-up.  Any 
normally  developed  boy  ten  to  thirteen  years  of  age 
should  be  able  to  run  60  yards  in  8f  seconds,  do  a  stand- 
ing broad  jump  of  5  feet  9  inches,  and  pull  up  four  times. 
Boys  of  the  next  group — those  having  the  development  of 
normal  thirteen  year  old  boys  and  older — are  expected 
to  do  the  run  in  8  seconds,  to  jump  6  feet,  and  to  pull 
up  six  times.  These  tests  have  been  accepted  and  used 
so  generally  that  the  Playground  and  Recreation  Associ- 
ation of  America  has  prepared  bronze  badges  to  be 
awarded  to  boys  who  pass  all  three  tests  in  either  group, 
in  order  to  encourage  boys  to  bring  themselves  up  to  a 
fair  standard  of  physical  development.  The  special 
emphasis  given  to  play  in  the  Gary  schools  has  afforded 
abundant  opportunity  for  the  boys  to  run  and  jump,  and 
the  bars,  ladders,  and  rings  on  their  playgrounds  pro\'ide 
the  means  for  developing  the  arm,  shoulder,  back,  and 
chest  muscles  that  function  in  the  pull-up. 

As  a  basis  of  comparison  the  scores  of  1,100  boys  in 
other  cities  have  been  taken.  These  tests  were  made  in 
New  Orleans,  Seattle,  Buffalo,  and  New  York  City. 
The  conditions  under  which  the  testing  was  done  were 
practically  the  same  as  at  Gary — that  is,  the  boys  were 
taken  in  groups  from  the  classroom  and  all  were  tested . 

In  the  pull-up  and  sixty  yard  dash,  the  Gary  boys  were 
in  every  age  group  inferior  to  boys  from  other  school 


158  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

systems;  in  the  standing  broad  jump,  Gary  boys  of  thir- 
teen and  fifteen  years  of  age  surpass  boys  of  the  same 
age  from  other  schools.  Thus,  in  twenty  one  possible 
comparisons  the  Gary  boys  excel  in  only  two  instances. 
How  far  this  poor  showing  may  be  due  to  the  presence 
of  newcomers,  we  do  not  know. 

The  ability  to  jump,  run,  and  pull  up  are  not,  however, 
absolutely  conclusive  indices  of  general  health  conditions 
and  all  around  bodily  vigor.  Other  ways  of  reaching 
conclusions  on  this  phase  of  the  Gary  school  product 
were  sought.  The  children  were  observed  at  their  play 
and  in  their  athletics  to  determine  the  effect  of  strenuous 
and  prolonged  activity.  It  was  plainly  evident  that  they 
were  not  easily  fatigued.  Both  boys  and  girls  were  able 
to  compete  in  such  vigorous  and  lengthy  events  as  potato 
races,  obstacle  races,  sack  races,  basketball  and  volley 
ball,  without  undue  exhaustion  and  with  well  sustained 
vigor.  This  conclusion  was  borne  out  by  the  scores  in 
basketball  games  with  teams  from  other  cities.  Prac- 
tically without  exception  the  scores  for  Gary  mounted 
up  rapidly  in  the  last  haK  of  the  playing  period,  indi- 
cating comparatively  strong  power  of  endurance.  Also 
when  "time  out"  was  called  and  the  visiting  players 
would  drop  to  the  floor  or  the  benches  for  a  bit  of  rest, 
the  Gary  team  would  invariably  practise  passing  the 
ball  and  shooting  baskets. 

Comparatively  low  markings  in  the  tests  with  simul- 
taneous evidence  of  a  high  degree  of  bodily  vigor  are  not 
the  results  that  would  naturally  be  expected.     But  the 


iM 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING  AND  PLAY  159 

freedom  allowed  the  children  and  the  absence  of  require- 
ments of  exactitude  and  finish  in  their  work,  coupled  with 
the  generous  amount  of  time  allotted  to  play  and  other 
forms  of  physical  activity,  may  easily  account  for  these 
apparently  conflicting  results.  Which  is  the  more  im- 
portant and  whether  it  is  not  possible  to  secure  both  pro- 
ficiency and  all  around  bodily  vigor  are  questions  open  to 
debate.  Certain  it  is  that  habits  of  inexactness  and  lack 
of  finish  in  doing  work  are  a  serious  handicap  and  that 
health  and  strong  power  of  endurance  are  most  valuable 
assets. 

The  events  in  the  girls'  tests  are  comparatively  new, 
having  recently  been  adopted  for  general  use.  There 
are,  therefore,  no  accumulated  records  with  which  to  com- 
pare them.  It  seemed  desirable,  however,  to  make  the 
tests.  The  girls  measured  up  no  more  nearly  to  the 
standard  requirements  than  did  the  boys.  Yet,  like  the 
boys,  in  the  events  requiring  sustained  effort,  such  as 
running  and  catching,  the  girls  gave  evidence  of  unusual 
power  of  endurance. 

Both  the  merits  and  the  defects  of  the  Gary  work  in 
physical  training  lie  on  the  surface.  The  time  allotted 
affords  ample  opportunity  for  orderly  exercises  of  a  cor- 
rective, body  building  character,  as  well  as  for  recreative 
games  ?,nd  free  play.  The  facilities  and  equipment  are 
generous;  the  teachers,  on  the  whole,  well  trained  and 
enthusiastic.  However,  the  number  of  pupils  in  the  in- 
struction groups  is  frequently  so  large  that  it  is  impos- 
sible to  give  attention  to  individual  needs  and  to  use 


i6o  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

exercises  suited  to  the  widely  varying  stages  of  phys- 
ical development.  The  result  is  an  excessive  use  of  free 
play,  which  too  often  is  hardly  more  than  an  aimless 
running  about  and  scuffling,  without  definite  aim  or  re- 
sults. This  type  of  recreation  cannot  be  fully  justified 
on  the  theory  that  the  schools  treat  the  gymnasiums  and 
playgrounds  as  public  play  spaces,  although  it  is  true 
that  the  long  school  day  includes  some  of  the  time  chil- 
dren usually  have  for  free  play.  Such  an  attitude  is 
well  enough  for  out  of  school  hours,  when,  undoubtedly, 
unorganized  play  on  the  school  grounds  is  far  better  for 
the  child  than  running  the  streets.  But  this  is  not  a  sound 
reason  for  making  a  similar  use  of  all  school  time.  Satis- 
factory bodily  training  and  the  cure  of  individual  physi- 
cal defects  cannot  be  obtained  in  that  way. 


XIII.    AUDITORIUM  AND  RELIGIOUS 
INSTRUCTION 

THE  modern  school,  we  have  been  saying,  holds 
itself  responsible  for  the  proper  development  of 
the  entire  child.  It  undertakes  to  train  him 
thoroughly  and  well  in  the  fundamental  school  subjects; 
to  stimulate  the  development  of  such  special  abilities 
as  he  may  possess;  to  bring  him  into  intelligent  relation 
with  the  physical  and  social  world  in  which  he  lives;  to 
care  for  his  physical  well  being.  These  various  purposes 
are  met  in  different  ways.  Classroom  instruction  ac- 
complishes one  set  of  ends;  shops  and  laboratories,  an- 
other; the  playground  and  gymnasium,  still  another. 
As  one — not,  be  it  noted,  the  only — ^method  of  developing 
initiative,  creating  a  social  spirit  and  exposing  children 
to  a  rich  variety  of  stimulating  experiences,  Gary  makes 
unprecedentedly  liberal  use  of  the  auditorium. 

Most  large  modern  schools  possess  an  auditorium 
where  the  entire  school  assembles  for  a  brief  period,  some- 
times daily,  sometimes  not  oftener  than  once  or  twice  a 
week.  The  assembly  promotes  school  self-consciousness; 
exercises  are  held,  announcments  are  made,  occasionally 
a  performance  is  given.  At  Gary,  however,  the  audito- 
rium in  the  larger  schools  is,  as  a  regular  and  active  factor 
in  school  work,  in  fairly  continuous  use  during  the  day 

i6i 


i62  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

by  groups  of  classes;  it  is  as  much  a  feature  of  the  regular 
school  day  as  the  shops,  the  gymnasium,  or  the  labora- 
tory. 

On  the  educational  side,  the  theory  underlying  the 
extended  use  of  the  auditorium  may  be  stated  as  follows: 

The  child  is  eager  for  constructive  and  creative  oppor- 
tunities; he  grows  in  power,  in  self-control,  in  interest,  in 
ability  to  cooperate  through  doing  things  with,  for,  and 
in  the  presence  of  his  fellows.  The  auditorium  gives 
him  an  incentive  to  organize  and  practise  activities 
of  every  conceivable  kind.  On  one  occasion  he  may, 
with  or  without  the  assistance  of  his  classmates,  present 
to  an  audience  of  his  fellows  the  result  of  his  efforts  to 
master  a  regular  classroom  task;  on  another,  a  program — 
literary,  musical,  or  dramatic— deliberately  put  together 
for  the  purpose;  or  again,  the  entire  group  may  be  assem- 
bled to  listen  to  a  lectuFe  or  demonstration  by  a  com- 
petent outsider.  From  this  point  of  view  the  extended 
use  of  the  auditorium  is  based  on  the  proposition  that 
large  groups  of  children  at  approximately  the  same 
stage  of  development  can  advantageously  be  brought  to- 
gether to  participate  systematically  in  activities  of  cer- 
tain types. 

There  is  also  another  consideration  to  be  kept  in  mind. 
The  child's  development  is  compounded  of  positive  and 
definite  increases  in  knowledge  or  skill  plus  the  enlarging 
but  unorganized  volume  of  contacts,  associations  and 
interests  which  constitute  what  may  be  called  his  mental 
or  spiritual  background.    If  these  contacts  are  varied 


AUDITORIUM  AND  RELIGIOUS  INSTRUCTION  163 

and  significant,  one's  general  intellectual  life  is  corres- 
pondingly full  or  rich;  if  they  are  few  and  weak,  one's 
general  intellectual  life  is  meager.  Environments  vary 
enormously  in  the  value  and  suggestiveness  of  what  they 
thus  offer  to  growing  children,  just  as  individuals  vary 
enormously  in  their  absorptive  capacity.  Generally 
speaking,  a  new  country  is  deficient  in  cultural  stimulus; 
new  communities,  by  reason  of  their  composition,  their 
brief  existence,  and  their  pressing  practical  needs,  are 
likewise  lacking  in  background.  The  school  may,  under 
such  circumstances,  try  to  relieve  the  unfavorable  en- 
vironment by  giving  the  child  informally  a  wide  range 
of  insights  and  experiences.  The  auditorium  at  Gary  is 
employed  for  this  purpose.  To  children  whose  daily 
lives  pass  in  the  unattractive  setting  of  a  new  industrial 
community,  the  auditorium  affords  from  time  to  time 
glimpses  of  natural  wonders,  of  foreign  cities,  of  ancient 
ruins.  It  ministers  to  the  child's  vagrant  interests  and 
to  his  appreciative  needs.  The  classroom  is  not,  of 
course,  expected  to  ignore  these  interests;  but  the  audi- 
torium can  deal  with  situations  difficult,  if  not  impossible, 
in  the  classroom.  If,  in  a  word,  it  is  good  for  children  to 
attend  concerts,  to  go  on  excursions,  to  visit  factories,  to 
listen  to  lectures,  to  take  part  in  plays — even  though 
the  precise  benefit  cannot  be  measured — then  the  audi- 
torium exercise  representative  of  such  activities  and  in- 
terests has  a  value,  especially  in  the  case  of  children  whose 
opportunities  for  enjoyment  and  enlargement  of  horizon 
are  meager.    This,  then,  is  the  second  point  made  in 


i64  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

favor  of  Gary's  larger  use  of  the  auditorium — that  certain 
types  of  activity  there  developed  are  calculated  to  enrich 
the  child's  experience  and  to  stimulate  the  imagination. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  of  all  the  features  of  the  Gary 
schools,  use  of  the  auditorium  on  the  present  scale  is  the 
most  highly  experimental.  Of  the  nine  schools,  the  Froe- 
bel,  the  Emerson,  and  perhaps  one  may  add  the  Jefferson, 
each  contain  a  well  built  auditorium;  at  Beveridge 
and  Glen  Park,  a  former  classroom  is  used  in  order  to 
provide  a  more  or  less  tolerable  makeshift;  the  four  small 
schools  have  neither  auditorium  nor  regular  auditorium 
exercises.  The  Emerson  auditorium  seats  764;  the  Froe- 
bel,  833 ;  the  Jefferson,  234.  The  acoustics  of  the  Froebel 
and  Jefferson  are  good,  of  the  Emerson,  unsatisfactory, 
although  said  to  have  been  recently  improved. 

The  problems  connected  with  the  management  of  the 
auditorium  reduce  to  three:  (i)  proper  grouping  of 
pupils,  so  that  the  group  in  attendance  is  fairly  homo- 
geneous; (2)  management;  (3)  content  of  programs.  We 
shall  discuss  these  problems  in  order. 

An  auditorium  group  to  which  a  film,  a  lecture,  a  con- 
cert, or  an  organized  performance  of  some  sort  is  pre- 
sented need  not,  obviously,  be  as  homogeneous  as  a 
class  formed  to  receive  specific  instruction.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  not  practicable  to  ofifer  intellectual 
entertainment  to  a  wholly  miscellaneous  assemblage. 
Theoretically,  the  Gary  auditorium  brings  together  at 
any  one  period  groups  made  up  of  classes  not  too  widely 
disparate.     The  kindergarten  and  beginning  classes  do 


AUDITORIUM  AND  RELIGIOUS  INSTRUCTION  165 

not  usually  participate  at  all.  The  remaining  classes  are 
divided  into  four  groups,  grades  i  to  3  forming  one  group, 
grades  4  to  6,  a  second,  grades  7  to  9,  a  third,  and  grades 
10  to  12,  a  fourth. 

This  alignment  is,  however,  frequently  disturbed,  as 
the  auditorium  programs  of  Emerson  and  Froebel  show.^ 
For  example,  at  Emerson,  for  the  3:15  period,  the  group 
includes  classes  from  the  fourth  to  the  eighth  grade. 
Similarly,  at  Froebel,  the  9:15  group  comprises  classes 
from  the  first  to  the  fourth  grade,  and  the  3:15  period, 
from  the  third  to  the  sixth  grade.  However,  in  the  larger 
schools  when  lower  grade  children  are  listed  for  audito- 
rium with  upper  classes — for  example,  a  fourth  grade 
with  an  eighth  grade — the  smaller  children  do  not  go  to 
the  main  auditorium,  but  report  to  the  expression  teacher 
for  half  of  the  period  and  to  the  music  teacher  for  the 
other  half.  Even  with  this  precaution,  the  grouping  is 
not  always  fortunate. 

The  groups  vary  considerably  in  size.  They  range 
in  Emerson  from  two  classes,  with  an  enrollment  of 
85,  to  five  classes,  with  a  membership  of  157;  and  in 
Froebel,  from  five  to  nine  classes,  with  from  135  to  276 
children.  These  differences  do  not  spring  from  theory; 
they  are  rather  the  natural  outcome  of  difficulties  en- 
countered in  making  up  the  program  for  the  entire  school. 
When  pupils  provide  the  entertainment — report  on  a 
visit  to  the  city  bakeries  or  on  experiments  illustrative 
of  class  work — the  size  of  the  groups  may  prove  a  serious 

'See  page  166. 


i66 


THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 


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AUDITORIUM  AND  RELIGIOUS  INSTRUCTION  167 

factor,  as  children's  voices  do  not  carry  far.  In  general, 
however,  the  size  of  the  group  is  of  secondary  import- 
ance, provided  only  the  group  is  sufficiently  homogeneous 
and  the  program  well  adapted. 

A  uniform  system  of  management  has  not  been  evolved 
and  is  probably  not  desirable,  since  the  schools  vary  so 
much  in  scope,  size,  and  facilities.  Emerson  and  Froebel 
might  indeed  follow  the  same  plan,  just  as  the  smaller 
schools  on  the  outskirts  of  the  town  may  find  a  conmion 
solution;  but  the  two  solutions  could  not  possibly  be 
identical.  At  present  the  schools  are  experimenting 
independently,  while  endeavoring  to  keep  in  touch  with 
one  another  through  a  conference  committee  of  audi- 
torium heads  and  workers,  which  meets  at  regular  inter- 
vals. It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that,  though 
the  auditorium  has  from  the  first  received  unusual  em- 
phasis at  Gary,  it  is,  on  the  present  scale  of  use,  only 
three  years  old.  It  is  therefore  not  to  be  wondered  at 
that  its  problems  have  not  been  as  yet  completely  for- 
mulated or  solved. 

At  the  Emerson  school  three  years  ago  no  particular 
person  was  responsible  for  program  or  management,  the 
teachers  simply  taking  turns;  during  the  last  two  years, 
however,  the  teacher  of  English  and  the  teacher  of 
physics  constituted  a  committee  of  management.  At 
the  Froebel  school  there  has  recently  been  a  special  audi- 
torium head,  whose  business  it  has  been  to  provide  the 
program;  at  the  Jefferson  school  the  teachers  of  music 
and  expression  divide  the  responsibility  for  the  audito- 


i68  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

rium,  other  teachers  giving  occasional  programs;  at  the 
Beveridge  tv/o  teachers  give  their  entire  time  to  this 
work.  In  all  cases  those  in  charge  of  the  auditorium 
arrange  with  the  teachers  who  are  to  present  programs  at 
future  dates;  from  time  to  time  they  procure  outside 
speakers  or  performers.  At  the  Froebel  each  teacher  was 
responsible  for  the  program  eight  times  in  the  course  of 
the  school  year,  and  the  same  program  was  repeated  four 
times  to  different  audiences  during  the  day,  somxCtimes 
with  different  groups  of  children  taking  part.  At  the 
Emerson  the  individual  teacher  became  responsible  for  an 
exercise  every  three  or  four  weeks.  There  were  twelve 
regular  auditorium  sessions  weekly,  two  each  on  four  days 
and  four  on  Thursday.  At  the  Jefferson,  as  there  is  only  a 
small  staff,  a  teacher  takes  charge  of  an  auditorium  period 
on  the  average  once  a  week.  Occasionally  the  arrange- 
ments made  may  be  disturbed  in  order  to  take  advantage 
of  some  unexpected  opportunity. 

Whatever  the  system  of  management  adopted,  a  suc- 
cessful auditorium  exercise  must  be  characterized  by 
good  group  discipline.  Irregular  attendance,  lack  of 
comprehension  or  interest  are  disintegrating  in  their 
general  effects.  A  well  executed  program  adapted  to  the 
particular  audience  assembled  develops  group  spirit, 
stimulates  emulation,  and  makes  some,  even  if  an  in- 
finitesimal, contribution  to  the  child's  slowly  and  mys- 
teriously accumulating  stock  of  ideas  and  impressions. 
In  point  of  disciphne,  the  various  schools  differ  widely. 
Generally  speaking,  exceptions  are  freely  allowed  in  the 


AUDITORIUM  AND  RELIGIOUS  INSTRUCTION  169 

matter  of  attendance;  children  are  excused  to  attend 
religious  classes,  for  music,  or  other  individual  causes; 
there  are  no  records  to  show  to  what  extent  such 
irregularities  occur.  Also,  in  just  the  opposite  direc- 
tion, unexpected  elements  are  introduced,  when  classes 
or  portions  of  classes,  their  regular  routine  being  in- 
terrupted, are  added  to  the  group  that  chances  at  that 
hour  to  occupy  the  auditorium.  The  auditorium  leaders 
differ  also  in  the  ease  and  completeness  with  which  they 
guide  or  control  the  group.  Some  are  quite  ineffective, 
with  the  result  that  the  hour  is  worse  than  wasted ;  others 
succeed  even  when  the  program  lacks  holding  power. 

An  auditorium  exercise  is  planned  to  last  within  a  few 
minutes  of  an  hour.  The  precise  manner  of  disposing  of 
the  time  varies  with  the  resources  of  the  school.  At  the 
Jefferson,  for  example,  a  few  minutes  are  spent  in  taking 
attendance,  twenty  or  twenty  five  minutes  are  devoted 
to  music,  vocal  and  instrumental,  five  minutes  to  march- 
ing, the  remaining  half  hour  or  less  to  the  day's  feature — 
an  exercise,  a  film,  or  a  lecture.  At  the  two  large  schools, 
the  material,  though  naturally  more  varied,  is  of  the  same 
general  character;  information  films  are  exhibited,  classes 
or  individuals  present  subjects  that  have  been  prepared 
for  the  purpose,  individuals  or  the  school  orchestra 
render  musical  numbers,  a  teacher — less  and  less  fre- 
quently an  outsider — gives  a  lecture  or  demonstration. 
The  manager  searches  the  school  for  work  adapted  to 
auditorium  exhibition;  the  laboratories,  the  shops,  the 
playground,  and  the  classrooms,  as  regularly  conducted, 


I70  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

furnish  usable  material.  Again,  the  teacher,  in  prepara- 
tion for  her  coming  turn,  undertakes  a  special  task, 
sometimes  with  an  individual,  sometimes  with  a  group. 
Thus,  recitations,  debates,  projects,  films,  dramatic 
exhibitions,  games,  music,  lectures,  and  demonstrations 
all  figure  in  the  activities  of  the  auditorium. 

At  its  best,  the  auditorium  is  a  formn  where  a  pupil,  a 
group,  a  teacher,  or  an  outsider  may  make  a  definite 
presentation  of  one  kind  or  another  to  a  fairly  homogene- 
ous, interested,  self -controlled  audience  of  school  chil- 
dren. Here,  for  example,  is  a  group  of,  say,  250  children, 
who,  entering  the  hall  in  an  easy  but  orderly  manner,  sit 
buzzing  and  expectant — like  a  mature  audience — until 
the  teacher  in  charge  rises  and  by  her  presence  on  the  plat- 
form procures  complete  quiet.  The  preliminaries  take 
place  without  incident.  To-day  the  feature  of  the  pro- 
gram is  a  discussion  of  swimming  by  the  high  school  girl 
who,  under  the  direction  of  the  English  teacher,  had  pre- 
pared an  elaborate  and  highly  creditable  memorandum  on 
that  subject;  to-morrow  a  high  school  boy  will  expound 
the  comparative  merits  of  different  automobiles  from  the . 
salesman's  point  of  view;  on  another  occasion  the  subject 
of  folk  dancing  will  be  presented  with  illustrative  dances 
prepared  by  the  teacher  of  physical  training.  Again,  an 
industrial  film — the  process  of  hat  making,  for  example — 
is  exhibited  and  explained;  or  a  travel  film,  touching 
countries  whose  history  or  literature  has  been  studied  in 
regular  class  work.  A  vigorous  and  telling  address  by  a 
demonstrator  of  the  International  Harvester  Company 


AUDITORIUM  AND  RELIGIOUS  INSTRUCTION  171 

on  the  topic  ''Swat  the  Fly"  fills  one  day;  musical  or 
dramatic  numbers  fill  the  next;  again,  a  science  class 
makes  a  demonstration  of  their  work  on  the  subject  of 
liquid  air;  an  outdoor  group  does  the  same  for  their  bird 
work,  or  their  playground  activities. 

So  much  for  the  auditorium  at  its  best.  At  its  worst, 
the  auditorium  simply  consumes  an  hour  of  the  child's 
time,  alternately  boring  and  amusing  him  with  material 
of  little  or  no  educative  value  because  it  is  either 
inherently  insignificant  or  poorly  done.  Much  of  the 
work,  especially  in  the  smaller  schools,  is  of  this  sort. 
Here,  for  example,  an  inferior  film  is  run  off  without 
comment  by  a  listless  teacher  to  a  group  of  children 
whose  pennies  already  procure  them  too  much  diversion 
of  precisely  this  kind;  again,  a  group  of  a  dozen  children 
mount  the  platform  to  give  a  poor  exhibition  in  reading 
to  an  audience  that  has  nothing  to  gain  even  were  the 
performance  a  good  one.  At  times  more  promising  ma- 
terial is  spoiled  by  lack  of  careful  and  intelhgent  prepa- 
ration ;  not  infrequently  an  audience  ineffectually  handled 
afifects  the  youthful  performers  disastrously. 

At  this  time  final  judgment  cannot  be  pronounced 
on  the  Gary  auditorium.  It  demands  a  large  amount  of 
time  on  the  daily  schedule ;  it  imposes  an  additional  task 
and  tax  upon  teachers.  Can  the  outcome  justify  the 
cost?  It  is  too  early  to  say.  Something  depends  on  the 
possibility  of  finding  and  retaining  leaders  who  possess 
marked  managerial  capacity — leaders  who  can  cooperate 
with  the  teachers  in  composing  programs  and  training 


172  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

the  participants,  while  controlling  the  audience  through 
its  own  effort  rather  than  through  police  authority; 
something — a  good  deal,  probably — depends  on  the 
efficiency  of  the  regular  school.  The  auditorium  is  ex- 
pected to  be  an  educative  exercise ;  on  the  other  hand,  it 
is  also  a  source  of  recreation,  enjoyment,  and  amusement. 
This  comes  in  happily,  if  elsewhere  high  standards  of 
individual  performance  are  upheld;  it  may  do  harm  if  the 
general  attitude  is  lax. 

Whatever  yet  remains  in  doubt,  on  one  point  a  definite 
opinion  may  be  formed.  The  makeshift  auditorium  in 
a  small  school,  without  leadership  and  as  a  practical  sub- 
stitute for  class  work  in  music  and  literature,  is  a  failure. 
A  large  school  may  ultimately  discover  how  to  keep  its 
frequent  auditorium  periods  at  a  level  high  enough  to 
justify  the  effort.  But  for  small  schools,  with  their 
preponderance  of  little  children  and  their  limited  re- 
sources in  teachers,  opportunities,  and  faciUties,  the  out- 
look is  unpromising. 

A  word  may  be  inserted  at  this  point  regarding  another 
highly  experimental  innovation,  viz.,  the  arrangement  for 
religious  instruction.  In  191 2  the  Gary  schools  proposed 
an  arrangement  which  would  enable  the  churches  of  the 
city  to  give  religious  instruction  twice  weekly  during 
school  hours  to  children  whose  parents  so  desired.  In 
general,  religious  instruction  was  meant  to  be  an  alterna- 
tive to  the  auditorium,  so  that  children  attending  a  class 
in  religion  would  be  excused  on  certain  days  from  audi- 
torium exercises;  but  in  practice  they  are  as  frequently 


AUDITORIUM  AND  RELIGIOUS  INSTRUCTION  173 

excused  from  physical  training  and  play.  The  schools, 
however,  explicitly  disavow  responsibility  for  the  child's 
attendance  on  the  class  in  religion;  he  is  "to  be  in  the 
custody  of  his  family,"  his  attendance  being  a  matter 
between  the  church  and  the  home,  not  the  church  and  the 
school.  The  schools  have  therefore  no  part  in  determin- 
ing the  character  or  aims  of  the  instruction  offered. 

Of  the  nine  Gary  schools,  religious  instruction  was,  in 
19 1 5-1 6,  actively  carried  on  only  in  connection  with  the 
Jefferson  school,  where  seven  churches  cooperated.  At  the 
Emerson,  one  church,  five  blocks  distant,  cooperated;  at 
the  Froebel,  two  neighborhood  houses  and  a  mission;  at 
Glen  Park,  two  churches.  Eight  hundred  and  forty  two 
children  out  of  a  total  school  enrollment  of  5,654  were 
ixi  attendance. 

It  is  too  early  to  express  a  final  opinion  as  to 
the  feasibility  or  importance  of  this  feature.  As  has 
been  stated,  it  has  not  yet  proved  practicable  to  develop 
it  generally.  Whether  it  is  wise  for  the  school  to  release 
its  hold  upon  the  child  during  school  hours  is  open 
to  question;  again,  cooperation  between  church  and 
state  involves  a  change  from  our  traditional  policy,  ac- 
cording to  which  church  and  state  pursue  their  respec- 
tive ends  independently  of  each  other.  It  remains  to 
be  ascertained  how  American  sentiment  will  react  to 
this  innovation. 


XIV.    ENROLLMENT,  ATTENDANCE  AND 
PUPIL  PROGRESS^ 

THE  purpose  of  the  public  school  is  to  pass  every 
child  of  the  community  through  a  complete  ele- 
mentary, if  not  a  high  school,  course.  As  yet  no 
system  of  public  schools  has  by  any  means  realized  this 
purpose.  The  extent  to  which  a  given  system  succeeds  is 
indicated  (i)  by  its  success  in  enrolling  the  children, 
(2)  by  their  attendance,  and  (3)  by  their  progress 
through  the  schools. 

The  Indiana  law  requires  that  the  school  census  in- 
clude all  unmarried  persons  between  the  ages  of  six 
and  twenty  one  years.  From  a  practical  point  of  view, 
however,  a  distinction  must  be  drawn  between  the 
children  reported  by  the  census,  all  of  whom  are  legally 
entitled  to  attend  school,  and  those  who  under  existing 
social  conditions  may  reasonably  be  expected  to  attend. 
Obviously  it  is  unreasonable  to  expect  all  children  to 
remain  at  school  until  they  are  twenty  one  years  of  age. 
For  our  present  purposes,  we  may  assume  that  the  ideal 
school  population  would  include  children  from  six  to 


*For  description  of  the  records  and  reports  on  which  this  chapter,  as  well 
as  other  general  chapters,  is  based,  see  Appendix  B,  page  211. 


174 


ENROLLMENT,  ATTENDANCE  AND  PROGRESS  175 

eighteen  years  of  age.  But,  even  so,  a  qualification  needs 
to  be  borne  in  mind.  The  compulsory  school  period  in 
Indiana  ends  with  the  pupil's  fourteenth  birthday.  Any 
child  is  legally  free  to  leave  school  the  moment  he  reaches 
fourteen. 

However  school  population  is  defined,  pubHc  schools 
never  enroll  all  eligible  children.  Some  parents  pre- 
fer private  and  parochial  schools,  while  many  children, 
particularly  of  high  school  age,  drop  out.  Gary  is  not 
unusual  in  these  respects.  Private  schools  are  not  so 
strong  as  in  older  communities,  but  there  are  several 
parochial  schools,  and  the  general  complexion  of  the 
population,  foreign  and  industrial  as  it  is,  augments 
the  difficulty  of  holding  young  people  in  school.  In 
fact,  a  comparison  by  ages  of  the  children  enumerated 
in  the  school  census  of  May,  19 16,  and  the  children  re- 
ported in  school  at  that  time  shows  that  the  Gary  pub- 
lic schools  enroll  only  63  per  cent,  of  those  from  six 
to  eighteen,  inclusive,  private  and  parochial  schools,  15 
per  cent.,  while  22  per  cent,  are  out  of  school  alto- 
gether.^ If,  however,  the  children  of  different  ages  are 
grouped  into  children  of  elementary  school  age  (those  from 
sLx  to  fourteen),  and  of  high  school  age  (those  from 
fifteen  to  eighteen) ,  the  public  schools  enroll  74  per  cent,  of 
the  former  and  24  per  cent,  of  the  latter.     (Figure  17.)- 

The  tendency  at  Gary  of  children  six  years  of  age  to 


iTable  XXVIII,  Appendix  D,  page.  248. 
'See  page  176. 


ENROLLMENT,  ATTENDANCE  AND  PROGRESS  177 

delay  beginning  school — 19  per  cent,  not  being  enrolled — 
is  readily  understood,  because  the  distances  they  have  to 
go  are  often  long  and  there  are  many  foreigners  and  new- 
comers. After  six,  the  public,  private,  and  parochial 
schools  together  reach  practically  all  children  up  to  four- 
teen, about  a  fifth  going  to  private  and  parochial 
schools.  But  the  attracting  power  of  both  public  and 
other  schools  wanes  decidedly  with  children  fourteen  and 
over.  Still,  the  Gary  schools  seem  to  be  unusually  suc- 
cessful in  attracting  children  fourteen  and  fifteen  years 
of  age,  who  are  beyond  the  compulsory  attendance  age, 
as  they  enroll  67  per  cent,  of  the  former  and  44  per  cent, 
of  the  latter.    But  that 

20  out  of  each  100,  fourteen  years  of  age, 

48  out  of  each  100,  fifteen  years  of  age, 

70  out  of  each  100,  sixteen  years  of  age, 

83  out  of  each  100,  seventeen  years  of  age,  and 

87  out  of  each  100,  eighteen  }-ears  of  age, 
should  be  out  of  school  altogether  shows  unsatisfactory 
conditions  at  Gary,  as  is  the  case  in  the  country  at  large. ^ 

But  mere  enrollment  is  not  enough.  Pupils  must  also 
be  held  to  continuous  and  regular  attendance.  Whether 
or  not  they  are  thus  held  can  be  inferred,  in  the  first  in- 
stance, from  the  number  dropping  out  before  completing 
the  course. 

Few  school  systems  have  complete  data  either  as  to 
the  number  dropping  out  or  as  to  the  age  and  grade  at 


^Tables  XXVIII,  XXIX,  and  XXX,  Appendix  D,  pages  248-250. 


178  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

which  they  drop  out,  and  the  data  at  Gary  are  alto- 
gether inadequate  on  these  points.  Nevertheless,  from 
such  data  as  are  available,  the  proportion  of  the  enroll- 
ment dropping  from  the  Gary  schools  during  the  school 
year  appears  to  be  somewhat  smaller  than  is  common. 
Furthermore,  probably  more  of  such  withdrawals  are 
due  at  Gary  to  changes  in  population  than  is  the  case 
in  older  and  more  settled  cities. 

In  the  year  191 5-1 6,  the  percentage  dropping  out 
ranged  in  the  elementary  school  from  9  per  cent,  in  the 
second  and  fourth  grades  to  22  per  cent,  in  the  eighth;  in 
the  high  school  from  4  per  cent,  in  the  twelfth  grade  to 
23  per  cent,  in  the  ninth.^  The  average  is  14  per  cent. ; 
Pasadena,  Cal.,  reports,  for  19 15-16,  16  per  cent.;  Deca- 
tur, 111.,  16  per  cent.;  New  Britain,  Conn.,  15  per  cent; 
Williamsport,  Pa.,  11  per  cent.;  and  Newton,  Mass.,  8 
per  cent.-  As  elsewhere,  the  largest  numbers,  relatively, 
drop  from  the  last  three  elementary  grades  and  the 
first  year  of  the  high  school. 

It  also  appears  that  children  begin  to  drop  out  of 
the  Gary  schools  at  about  the  usual  ages  (fourteen  and 
thereafter),  and  for  the  usual  causes  (family  moving 
from  the  city,  to  go  to  work,  personal  and  family  ill- 


iTable  XXXI,  Appendix  D,  page  251. 

^Public  school  reports  for  191 5-16  for  the  respective  cities,  with  the 
exception  of  Decativ,  which  is  for  1914-15.  These  percentages  are  at 
best  only  suggestive.  Withdrawal  is  not  always  defined;  hence  the  dif- 
ferences in  the  per  cent,  of  withdrawals  may  be  more  a  matter  of  defini- 
tion than  actual  differences  in  holding  power. 


ENROLLMENT,  ATTENDANCE,  AND  PROGRESS  179 

ness,  etc.).  The  Gary  data  bearing  on  these  points  are, 
however,  unusually  incomplete.  No  reasons  are  re- 
ported for  24  per  cent,  of  the  withdrawals;  there  is 
no  record  of  the  grade  to  which  8  per  cent,  of  those 
withdrawing  belonged;^  and  no  record  of  the  ages  of  14 
per  cent,  of  the  entire  number  withdrawn.  ^ 

Again,  the  holding  power  of  the  schools  is  indicated  by 
regularity  of  attendance.  A  common  method  of  express- 
ing this  is  to  give  the  per  cent,  of  the  total  enrollment 
in  average  daily  attendance.  When  so  expressed,  at- 
tendance since  1910  has  ranged  at  Gary  from  67  per  cent, 
in  1911-12  to  76  per  cent,  in  1914-15,  with  73  per  cent,  for 
1915-16.^  This  method  of  expressing  regularity  of  atten- 
dance is,  however,  of  Httle  significance,  since  total  enroll- 
ment includes  all  children  in  school  at  any  time  during  the 
year,  whether  on  the  register  for  the  entire  session  or  for  a 
brief  period  only.  We  need  to  know  rather  the  regularity 
of  attendance  on  the  part  of  children  actively  on  the  roll 
a  given  length  of  time."*  This  involves  comparison  of 
the  days  enrolled  with  days  present  during  enrollment. 
For  example,  if  a  pupil  is  enrolled  200  days  and  present 
160,  his  per  cent,  of  attendance  is  80.  Regularity  of 
attendance  when  so  computed  runs  for  the  Gary  system 
as  a  whole  as  high  as  90  per  cent,  and  as  low  as  86,  with 


'Table  XXXI,  Appendix  D,  page  251. 
2Table  XXXII,  Appendix  D,  page  252. 
^Table  XXXIII,  Appendix  D,  page  253. 

*We  ought  also  to  know  the  time  lost  by  late  entrance  and  the  causes 
thereof. 


i8o  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

89  per  cent,  for  1915-16.^  That  children  should  be  out 
of  school  after  they  enroll  slightly  more  than  a  tenth  of 
the  time  is  not  unusual. 

Three  facts  in  this  connection  are  worthy  of  note: 
First,  despite  the  differences  among  the  several  schools  in 
facilities  and  programs,  and  despite  the  differences  in 
nationaHty  and  economic  status  of  the  children,  the  per 
cent,  of  attendance  varies  Uttle  from  school  to  school, 
and  in  no  case  is  it  far  from  the  record  for  the  city  as  a 
whole.  Second,  children  entering  school  late  attend, 
when  once  they  are  enrolled,  about  as  regularly  as  those 
in  school  from  the  begimiing,  an  indication  probably 
that  the  late  entrants  are  mostly  newcomers  and  not 
truant  children.-  Finally,  children  living  in  Gary  appear 
to  enter  school  mostly  on  the  opening  day,  and  the  num- 
ber entering  at  each  later  ten  day  interval  does  not  seem 
large  enough  to  disturb  the  progress  of  school  work.^ 

We  have  now  seen  to  what  extent  the  Gary  schools 
succeed  in  getting  the  children  of  the  community  in 
school,  and  to  what  extent  they  succeed  in  holding  them 
to  continuous  and  regular  attendance.  It  remains  to 
consider  how  regularly  children  advance  through  the 
schools. 

A  common  elementary  school  measure  of  whether  or 
not  children  are  where  they  should  be  on  their  way 


'Table  XXXIV,  Appendix  D,  page  253. 
2Table  XXXV,  Appendix  D,  page  253  A. 
^Table  XXXVI,  Appendix  D,  page  254. 


ENROLLMENT,  ATTENDANCE,  AND  PROGRESS  i8i 

through  the  school  is  to  determine  whether  or  not  they 
are  entering  or  have  completed  the  grade  proper  to  their 
age.  The  significance  of  this  measure  lies  in  the  fact  that 
when  school  children  fall  too  far  behind  their  proper 
grade,  they  are  likely  to  drop  out  even  before  completing 
the  elementary  course,  to  say  nothing  of  the  high  school 
course.  When  the  elementary  pupils  of  Gary  are  grouped 
according  to  the  grade  proper  to  their  age/  22  per  cent, 
are  under  age  (that  is,  ahead  of  their  proper  grade), 
40  per  cent,  are  normal  age  (that  is,  in  their  proper 
grade),  and  38  per  cent,  are  over  age  (that  is,  behind 
their  proper  grade).-     (Figure  18.)^ 

WTien  compared  with  other  cities,  Gary  is  doing  as 
well  as  they  do,  but  probably  no  better,  in  advancing 
children  through  the  school.  The  basis  of  this  conclu- 
sion is  admittedly  narrow,  for  we  have  data  fairly  com- 
parable from  only  three  other  cities,  Dubuque,  la., 
Rockford,  111.,  and  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  which  are  as  follows: 


Dubuque . 
Rockford . 
Rochester . 


Gary. 


PER  CENT. 
UNDER  AGE 


18 

21 
9 


22 


PER  CENT. 
NORM.\L  AGE 


49 

42 
53 


40 


PER  CENT. 
0\^R   AGE 


33 
37 
38 


38 


'There  are  a  number  of  recognized  methods  of  computing  over  age, 
each  yielding  different  results.  In  this  report  we  have  used  the  Bachman 
method.  For  different  methods  and  differences  in  results,  see  Appendix 
C,  page  212. 

^Tables  XXXVII  and  XXXVII- A,  Appendix  D,  pages  254A  and  255. 

'See  page  182. 


1 82  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

Gary,  it  will  be  noted,  has  more  children  ahead  of  their 
proper  grade  than  any  one  of  the  three  cities  in  question, 
fewer  children  in  their  proper  grade,  and  as  many  be- 
hind their  proper  grade  as  Rochester  (38  per  cent.)  and 
more  than  either  Rockford  or  Dubuque. 

Figure  18 
Proportion  of  Elementary  Children  Under  Age,  Normal  Age, 
AND  Over  Age 


As  in  other  systems,  in  consequence  of  differences  in 
organization,  quality  of  instruction,  promotion  stand- 
ards, and  especially  pupil  ability,  the  age-grade  status 
of  the  children  is  not  uniform  for  the  several  schools. 
At  Gary  the  widest  differences  occur  as  between  Jefferson 
and  Froebel;  the  children  under  age  range  from  10  per 


ENROLLMENT,  ATTENDANCE,  AND  PROGRESS  183 

cent,  in  Froebel  to  35  per  cent,  in  Jefferson,  and  the 
over  age  from  56  to  23  per  cent,  respectively.  Jefferson 
not  only  makes  the  best  showing  of  all,  but  conditions 
there  are  remarkable,  more  children  being  ahead  than 
behind  their  grade — 35  per  cent,  as  against  23  per  cent.^ 

More  significant  than  the  number  of  over  age  children 
in  a  system  is  the  number  of  years  these  children  are  be- 
hind their  proper  grade.  A  child  less  than  a  year  over 
age  may,  especially  if  in  the  lower  grades,  catch  up  with 
his  class;  but  it  is  next  to  impossible  for  him  to  do  so  if 
he  is  ten  or  twelve  years  of  age  and  two,  three,  or  four 
years  behind  other  children  of  his  age. 

Of  the  1,311  over  age  children  at  Gary,  789,  or  60  per 
cent.,  are  less  than  a  year  behind;  353,  or  27  per  cent., 
are  one  and  less  than  two  years  behind ;  1 19,  or  9  per  cent., 
are  two  and  less  than  three  years  behind;  50,  or  4  per 
cent.,  are  three  years  or  more  behind.^ 

At  that,  over  age  is  probably  no  more  serious  at  Gary 
than  elsewhere,  as  the  following  table  shows : 


Length  of 

Over  Age 

Cmr 

PER   CENT. 
LESS  THAN 
ONE  YEAR 

PER    CENT. 
ONE    YEAR 
.■VND  LESS 

THAN  TWO 

PER   CENT. 
TWO    YEARS 

AND  LESS 
THAN  THREE 

PER    CENT. 

THREE 

OR  MORE 

YEAiS 

Dubuque .... 
Rockf  ord .... 
Rochester.  .  . 

62 
60 
62 

26 

27 
23 

8 

9 

10 

4 
4 
5 

Gar}- 60 

27 

9 

4 

'Table  XXXVIII,  Appendix  D,  page  256. 
-Table  XXXIX,  Appendix  D,  page  257. 


i84  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

In  slowly  growing  cities,  backwardness  in  this  respect 
is  attributed  to  over  age  at  entrance,  or  to  the  failure  of 
the  schools  to  advance  pupils  regularly,  or  to  both  causes. 
Failure  of  pupils  to  make  proper  progress  at  Gary  is  not 
so  easily  disposed  of.  For  out  of  3,422  enrolled  in  the 
elementary  school,  1,372,  or  40  per  cent.,  had  started 
school  elsewhere.^  For  example,  of  the  June  elemen- 
tary school  graduating  class,  only  15  of  the  95  had  had 
all  their  work  at  Gary;  the  remaining  80  entered  from 
other  systems,  as  follows : 

9  in  first  grade,  A  and  B  di\dsions 

12  in  second  grade 

15  in  third  grade 

1 2  in  fourth  grade 

12  in  fifth  grade 

6  in  sixth  grade 

7  in  seventh  grade 
6  in  eighth  grade 

I  unknown 
Under  these  conditions,  the  failure  of  other  systems  to 
advance  pupils  regularly  may  account,  in  part,  for  the 
fact  that  certain  children  in  the  Gary  schools  are  now  be- 
hind their  grades.  In  fact,  24  per  cent,  of  the  children 
coming  from  other  systems  were,  on  entrance,  ahead  of, 
and  40  per  cent,  behind,  their  proper  graces.^  At  pres- 
ent 20  per  cent,  of  these  chi  dren  are  under  and  48  per 
cent,  are  over  age.     WTiile  in  the  Gary  schools,  the  pro- 

^Table  XL,  Appendix  D,  page  258. 
*Table  XLI,  Appendix  D,  page  259. 


ENROLLMENT,  ATTENDANCE,  AND  PROGRESS  185 

portion  ahead  of  their  grade  thus  decreased  4  per  cent, 
and  that  behind  increased  8  per  cent. 

Nor  can  all  the  present  over  age  among  children  who 
started  their  school  life  at  Gary  be  charged  directly  to 
the  Gary  schools.  For,  while  32  per  cent,  of  these  chil- 
dren are  now  over  age,  the  Gary  schools  are  directly 
responsible  for  only  18  per  cent.,  as  14  per  cent,  of  them 
were  behind  on  entrance.^  The  full  responsibiHty  of 
the  Gary  schools  is,  however,  somewhat  larger,  for  in  the 
meanwhile  the  initial  proportion  of  under  age  children 
has  decreased  8  per  cent.;  besides,  children  in  relatively 
large  nimibers  enter  young,  which  tends  to  lessen  the 
number  falling  behind. 

If  these  two  groups — those  having  attended  other 
schools  and  those  starting  school  at  Gary — are  now  com- 
bined, the  actual  position  of  the  Gary  schools  in  regard 
to  pupil  progress  becomes  clear.-  The  initial  age-grade 
status  of  aU  Gary  children — 28  per  cent,  ahead  of  grade, 
48  per  cent,  up  to  grade,  and  24  per  cent,  behind  grade — 
contributes  to  the  making  of  a  good  showing  later  on. 
Failure  while  in  the  Gary  schools  to  progress  regularly 
reduced  the  initial  proportion  of  under  age  6  per  cent., of 
normal  age,  8  per  cent.,  and  increased  the  over  age  14  per 
cent.  (Figure  19.)^  Whether  these  unfavorable  changes 
are  large  or  small,  we  do  not  know,  as  there  are  no  compar- 
able data  available.     We  incline  to  regard  them  as  small. 

^Table  XLII,  Appendix  D,  page  260. 
*Table  XLIII,  Appendix  D,  page  261. 
3Page  186. 


1 86 


THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 


Figure  19 
Initial  and  Present  Age-Grade  Status  of  All  Gary  Children 


J  t\t  cntmnct 


Support  for  this  view  is  found  when  the  children  now 
under  age,  of  normal  age,  and  over  age  are  grouped  ac- 
cording to  rapid,  normal,  and  slow  progress  after  entering 
the  Gary  schools.  A  child's  progress  is  normal  when  he 
is  credited  with  as  many  terms'  work  as  he  has  been 
terms  in  school,  i.  e.,  when  he  advances  without  interrup- 
tion or  backset  term  by  term.  On  this  basis,  when  he 
has  more  credits  than  terms  in  school  he  is  rapid,  and 
when  he  has  less,  he  is  slow.     When  so  grouped,  19  per 


ENROLLMENT,  ATTENDANCE,  AND  PROGRESS  187 

cent,  of  all  the  elementary  children  are  rapid,  29  per 
cent,  normal,  and  52  per  cent,  slow.^  Thus,  half  of  the 
children  failed  to  keep  up,  but  the  Gary  schools  held  the 
other  half  to  normal  or  better,  and  of  the  half  falling  be- 
hind, 41  per  cent,  lost  only  a  single  term. 

Our  position  is  also  supported  by  a  comparison  be- 
tween the  total  number  of  terms  all  pupils  on,  the  register 
have  been  enrolled  and  the  total  number  of  terms' 
work  to  their  combined  credit.  Those  entering  the  Gary 
schools  from  other  systems  suffered  a  net  loss  of  8  per 
cent.,  those  having  attended  no  other  schools,  14  per 
cent.^  The  greater  apparent  success  of  outside  children 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  such  children  mostly  enter  the 
middle  and  higher  grades^  where  the  losses  for  all  children 
are  less  than  in  the  beginning  grades.''  The  average 
net  loss  for  all  children  is  1 2  per  cent. ,  which  means  that 
88  per  cent,  of  the  entire  school  advance  regularly.  To 
accomplish  this  result  a  liberal  promotion  policy  is  requi- 
site. 

The  present  organization  is,  in  general,  favorable  to  the 
regular  advancement  of  children.  The  main  drawback 
is  the  lack  of  special  classes,  particularly  at  Froebel,  for 
non-English  speaking,  backward,  or  defective  children. 
The  three  classes  for  defectives  at  Froebel,  if  confined  to 


'Table  XLIV,  Appendix  D,  page  262. 
*Table  XLV,  Appendix  D,  page  263. 
'Table  XL,  Appendix  D,  page  258. 
*Table  XL VI,  Appendix  D,  page  264. 


i88  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

this  field,  might  provide  for  all  such  children  there;  but 
they  now  serve  for  all  kinds  of  children  needing  special 
assistance.  The  one  class  of  backward  pupils,  composed 
now  of  siftings  from  the  primary  grades,  is  inadequate 
for  the  109  children  two  or  more  years  behind  then*  grade 
and  the  successful  care  of  a  school  population  predom- 
inantly foreign  requires  special  classes  for  non-English 
speaking  pupils.  The  need  for  special  classes  at  Jefferson 
and  Emerson  is  not  pressing,  but  Beveridge,  with  each 
third  child  over  age,  could  certainly  make  good  use  of 
one  or  more. 

Among  the  favorable  factors  is  the  promotion  of  chil- 
dren three  times  a  year,  as  well  as  during  term  time  when- 
ever a  child  can  do  the  work  of  the  next  grade;  also  the 
Saturday  and  summer  schools.  Saturday  is  not  a  regular 
school  day,  but  the  buildings  are  open  and  instructors 
are  on  duty.  Pupils  who  are  falling  behind,  or  who 
have  been  absent,  or  who  wish  to  make  two  grades  in 
one  year,  come  voluntarily  for  one  or  more  hours' 
assistance  from  their  regular  weekday  teachers.  The 
summer  school  serves  the  same  end,  and  is  even  more 
effective  than  the  Saturday  school  in  helping  over  age 
children  to  catch  up,  weak  children  to  make  their  grade, 
and  ambitious  ones  to  advance  more  rapidly  than  their 
class. 

The  smallness  of  the  classes  in  "special  work"  is 
also  a  favorable  factor;  in  the  old  line  studies,  however, 
classes  are  of  the  usual  size.  The  average  number  of  pupils 
on  roll  in  these  at  the  end  of  the  year  was  36,  half  of 


ENROLLMENT,  ATTENDANCE,  AND  PROGRESS  189 

the   classes   having   38   or  more  and  half   ha\'ing  less 
than  38  pupils.^ 

To  conclude,  whether  the  advancement  of  the  Gary 
children  through  the  schools  is  measured  by  their  present 
age-grade  status  or  by  their  progress  after  taking  up 
school  work  at  Gary,  the  Gary  schools  make  a  creditable 
showing,  particularly  if  the  foreign  character  of  the  pop- 
ulation is  considered  and  account  is  taken  of  the  large 
number  of  children  coming  from  other  systems.  But 
the  two  measures  employed  show  only  whether  children 
have  or  have  not  advanced  regularly  for  their  age  and 
for  their  time  in  school.  They  shed  no  light  whatever 
upon  educational  performance  or  achievement. 

^Table  XL VII,  Appendix  D,  page  265. 


XV.    COSTS! 

NOTHING  is  easier  than  comparison  of  school 
costs  on  the  basis  of  printed  tables — and,  be  it 
added,  at  once,  nothing  more  misleading.  A 
simple  comparison  of  school  costs  is  absolutely  without 
significance  unless  the  educational  advantages  for  which 
the  expenditures  were  made  are  taken  into  consideration. 
Thus,  a  comparison  between  general  or  per  capita  costs 
in  two  different  cities  would  be  helpful,  if  substantially 
identical  educational  opportunities  were  offered;  such  a 
comparison  is,  however,  worse  than  useless,  if  the  educa- 
tional opportunities  are  notably  dissimilar.  The  same 
holds  even  as  between  different  schools  witliin  the  same 
system.  A  comparison  of  the  per  capita  cost  of  instruc- 
tion in  one  of  Gary's  portable  schools  with  per  capita 
cost  of  instruction  in  the  Emerson  or  Froebel  school  is 
meaningless,  since  the  educational  opportunities  are 
themselves  non-comparable.  Education  has  one  cost 
at  the  Emerson,  another  at  the  Froebel,  still  another  at 
the  Jefferson,  because  in  the  three  schools  mentioned 
the  town  buys  different  opportunities  under  different 
conditions.     It  is  therefore  difficult  to  say  what  is  meant 


ipor  detailed  account,  see  report  on  Costs,  by  Frank  P.  Bachman 
and  Ralph  Bowman. 

190 


COSTS  191 

when  costs  as  such  at  these  three  schools  are  compared, 
and  impossible  to  say  what  is  meant  when  they  are  av- 
eraged. 

This  does  not  mean,  however,  that  it  is  useless  to  study 
costs.  It  means  simply  that  there  is  little  to  be  gained 
from  the  exhibition  of  what  may  be  called  lumped  costs 
or  unanalyzed  costs.  Costs  may,  however,  be  pi:ofitably 
studied  in  direct  connection  with  facilities  provided,  fa- 
cihties  used,  opportunities  offered,  and  type  of  organiza- 
tion employed.  If,  however,  a  study  of  this  kind  is  con- 
templated, accounts  must  be  so  kept  as  to  provide  the 
data  therefor.  To  the  extent  that  such  cost  accounting 
systems  are  uniformly  introduced,  comparisons  will  be 
vahd  and  helpful. 

For  the  present  we  are  compelled  to  content  ourselves 
with  presenting  the  main  items  of  the  Gary  costs  and 
showing  by  their  variations  how  largely  the  several  costs 
vary  within  a  single  system  according  to  the  quality  of 
the  facilities  provided,  the  greater  or  less  completeness 
with  which  they  are  used,  and  the  educational  oppor- 
tunities offered. 

For  example,  of  the  three  large  schools,  the  cost  of  the 
Emerson  school — grounds,  buildings,  and  equipment — 
was  $388,886.07;  of  the  Froebel,  $433,517.55;  of  the  re- 
modeled Jefferson,  $98,309.99.  On  the  basis  of  actual 
attendance,  these  investments  represent  a  capital  outlay 
per  pupil  of  $524.11  at  the  Emerson  school,  $288.43  at 
the  Froebel  school,  and  $135.04  at  the  Jefferson  school. 
The  immense  discrepancy  in  these  figures  is  partly  as- 


192  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

cribable  to  the  fact  that  the  opportunities  offered  are 
far  from  uniform,  partly  to  the  fact  that  attendance  is 
up  to  capacity  at  the  Jefferson  and  far  from  capacity  at 
the  Emerson.  If  Gary's  own  estimate  of  the  capacity  of 
the  Emerson  and  Froebel  schools  is  correct  (2,300  in 
each) — a  point  as  to  which  there  is  some  doubt — the 
per  capita  investment  at  Emerson  would  be  $169.08,  at 
Froebel,  S188.49.  A  more  conservative  estimate  of  ca- 
pacity would  show  a  per  capita  plant  investment  of 
between  S200  and  $250.  These  figures  can  be  fairly 
compared  \\4th  plant  investment  in  other  cities  only  on 
the  basis  of  similar  facilities.  It  means  nothing,  for  ex- 
ample, to  allege  that,  in  respect  to  capital  investment, 
the  Gary  plan  is  either  dear  or  cheap  as  compared  with 
some  other  plan.  Such  a  comparison  is  significant  only  if 
one  compares  the  investment  required  by  the  Gary  plan 
for  certain  specific  opportunities  with  the  investment  re- 
quired by  some  other  plan  offering  equal  opportunities. 
The  total  current  expenditures  for  the  entire  Gary  sys- 
tem (1915-16)  were  $255,438.41,  of  which  $182,004.39 
went  for  the  day  school,  $21,677.99  for  overhead  charges 
(usually  added  to  the  day  school  costs),  the  balance  for 
Saturday  school,  night  school,  etc.  The  per  capita  day 
school  expenditure  on  the  basis  of  average  daily  attend- 
ance was  thus  $49.29.  But  this  average  obscures  rather 
than  sets  forth  the  interesting  facts,  since  per  capita  ex- 
pense in  the  three  main  day  schools  varies  from  S34.31 
at  the  Jefferson  to  $74.64  at  the  Emerson.  The  follow- 
ing table  exhibits  these  variations  in  detail : 


COSTS 


193 


SCHOOL 

KINDER- 
GARTEN 

ELEMENTARY   SCHOOL 
GRADES 

HIGH 
SCHOOL 

ALL 

1  to  5 

6  to  8 

1  to  8 

Emerson.  .  . 
Froebel.  .  .  . 
Jefferson.  .  . 

$46. 83 
40.17 
31.67 

$64.49 
48.51 
34.89 

$74.58 
57.54 
33.97 

$68.75 
50.29 
34.64 

$90.80 

79.22 

$74.64 
52.37 
34.31 

In  the  crucial  matter  of  instruction  alone,  considerable 
divergencies  exist.  In  the  upper  elementary  grades, 
per  capita  instruction  costs  vary  from  $20.99  ^^  the 
Jefferson  to  more  than  double  that  sum  at  the  Emer- 
son; between  Jefferson  and  Froebel  the  difference  in 
these  grades  is  also  very  large.  The  following  table 
summarizes  these  facts: 


SCHOOL 

KINDER- 
GARTEN 

ELEMENTARY   SCHOOL 
GRADES 

HIGH 
SCHOOL 

1  to  5 

6  to  8 

1  to  8 

Emerson 

Froebel 

Jefferson 

$19.93 
21.41 
18.69 

$37.59 
29.75 
21.91 

$47.68 
38.78 
20.99 

$41.85 
31.53 
21.66 

$63.90 

60.46 

Still  larger  variations  would  be  introduced  if  the  other 
schools  were  included,  while  the  extreme  variation  would 
probably  be  less  if  the  Emerson  school  were  operating  at 
capacity. 

Perhaps  the  most  problematical  factor  in  Gary  costs  is 
the  cost  of  the  shops.  It  has  been  pointed  out  that  these 
shops  serve  two  purposes — production  (including  re- 
pairs), and  education.     In  the  manual  training  shops, 


194  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

production  is  incidental  to  instruction,  whereas  the  forge, 
foundry,  machine  shop,  etc.,  are  operated  primarily  on  a 
production  basis.  When  all  shops  are  taken  together,  to 
what  extent  does  productive  and  repair  work  pay  for 
the  educational  opportunities  enjoyed?  Are  the  shops 
practically  self-supporting?  If  so,  such  industrial  edu- 
cation as  the  Gary  boy  gets  would  cost  the  community 
nothing. 

In  the  year  191 5-1 6,  the  sum  spent  on  all  shops  aggre- 
gated $22,535.31.  Gary  authorities  credit  the  shops 
with  an  estimated  market  value  of  their  products. 
Owing  to  the  incompleteness  of  the  records,  we  were  un- 
able to  determine  the  total  estimated  market  value 
placed  by  the  instructors  on  products  of  the  manual 
training  shops  and  the  paint  shop.  But  in  the  remaining 
shops,  the  instructors  placed,  in  191 5-16,  a  market  value 
on  their  products  of  $16,268,  which  alone  is  72  per  cent, 
of  the  initial  cost  of  all  shops.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
several  shops  are  credited,  as  we  have  done,  with  only 
the  labor  and  material  cost  of  their  products,  the  credit 
allowance  for  all  shops  amounts  to  $12,217.62,  or  54 
per  cent,  of  their  total  initial  cost;  that  is,  taken  alto- 
gether, the  Gary  shops  are  54  per  cent,  self-supporting. 
If,  however,  those  shops  are  considered  separately  which 
are  operated  primarily  on  a  productive  basis,  such  as 
forge,  foundry,  machine  shop,  print  shop,  etc.,  these 
shops,  when  credited  with  the  labor  and  material  cost 
of  their  products,  are  69  per  cent,  self-supporting. 

The  foregoing  discussion  makes  plain  that  there  is  no 


COSTS  195 

point  in  considering  school  expenditures  unless  at  the 
same  time  one  considers  the  return  in  educational  advan- 
tages. If  one  has  in  mind  the  Gary  plan  as  embodied 
in  the  Froebel  and  Emerson  schools,  it  is  obvious  that 
the  plan  is  not  cheap  in  the  sense  that  its  enormously 
increased  opportunities  cost  actually  less  than  the  more 
limited  opportunities  of  the  old  red  schoolhouse.  Of 
course  they  cost  more,  much  more,  and  it  is  infinitely  to 
?ts  credit  that  Gary  has  made  the  greater  investment  to 
achieve  the  larger  purpose.  The  real  question,  however, 
is  whether  or  not  the  Gary  plan  costs  more  for  what  it 
gives — ^whether  identical  opportunities  would  cost  less  on 
some  other  plan.  For  the  detailed  evidence  bearing  on 
this  crucial  point  the  reader  must  consult  the  technical 
discussions  contained  in  the  volumes  on  Costs  and  Or- 
ganization and  Administration.  Suffice  it  here  to  re- 
state the  conclusion  there  expressed,  that,  though  addi- 
tional data  are  desirable,  it  appears  that  schools  organ- 
ized on  the  Gary  plan  promise  an  extended  and  enriched 
course  of  study  at  minimum  cost.  In  other  words,  the 
advantages  offered  by  the  Gary  schools  at  their  best 
probably  cost  less  than  the  same  advantages  on  a  more 
conventional  plan  of  school  organization. 


XVI.    CONCLUSION 

IN  BRINGING  this  volume  to  a  close,  it  is  perhaps 
worth  while  to  sum  up  briefly  the  pros  and  cons  of  a 
complicated  situation. 
On  the  credit  side  of  the  ledger  must  be  placed  the 
fact  that  Gary  has  adopted,  and  taken  effective  steps 
towards  providing  facihties  for,  a  large  and  generous 
conception  of  public  education.  Had  Gary  played  safe, 
we  should  find  there  half  a  dozen  or  more  square  brick 
"soap-box"  buildings,  accommodating  a  dozen  classes, 
each  pursuing  the  usual  book  studies,  a  playground,  with 
little  or  no  equipment,  perhaps  a  basement  room  for 
manual  training,  a  laboratory,  and  a  cooking  room  for 
girls.  Provided  with  this  commonplace  system,  the 
town  would  have  led  a  conventional  school  life — quiet, 
unoffending,  and  negatively  happy — doing  as  many 
others  do,  doing  it  about  as  well  as  they  do  it,  and 
satisfied  to  do  just  that.  Instead,  it  adopted  the 
progressive,  modern  conception  of  school  function, 
formulated  its  conception  in  clear  terms  and  with  all 
possible  expedition  pro\'ided  facilities  adequate  to  the 
conception.  The  adoption  and  execution  of  this  policy 
required  administrative  courage  and  civic  liberality.  In 
one  sense  there  was  nothing  revolutionary  in  it,  for  not 

196 


CONCLUSION  197 

a  few  schoolmen  have  adopted  this  broad  conception  of 
public  education.  But  Gary  not  only  adopted  this 
conception  in  theory — it  made  realization  possible  by 
providing  in  its  main  schools  the  physical  conditions 
needed  for  its  execution.  The  Froebel  and  the  Emer- 
son schools  are  not  simply  fine  buildings,  that  in  their 
environment  startle  the  visitor — they  are  instruments 
formed  to  embody  and  realize  a  distinct  educational 
idea.  Even  the  temporary  makeshifts  required  by  the 
exigencies  of  the  situation  show  an  intelligent  and  serious 
effort  to  do  what  is  feasible  in  the  same  direction  for 
children  unable  to  attend  the  well  equipped  central 
schools.  The  extended  curriculmii  is  therefore  a  reality 
at  Gary,  and  the  general  movement  toward  enrichment 
of  the  curriculum  has  been  greatly  stimulated  by  Gary's 
example. 

On  the  credit  side  of  the  ledger  belongs  also  Gary's 
contribution  to  school  organization.  There  can  be 
no  question  that  a  modern  plant,  consisting  of  class- 
rooms, shops,  gymnasium,  laboratories,  and  audito- 
rium, can  be  operated  on  the  Gary  type  of  organiza- 
tion so  as  to  accommodate  a  considerably  larger  number 
of  children  than  the  same  plant  operated  on  the 
conventional  plan.  Indeed,  the  Gary  type  of  organi- 
zation anticipates  such  unsatisfactory  and  deplorable 
makeshifts,  as  "part  time,"  by  providing  on  purely 
educational  grounds  for  the  intensive  use  of  all  school 
facilities.  Thus,  without  waiting  to  be  driven  by  pres- 
sure of  large  numbers,  Gary  has  developed  a  type  of 


198  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

school  organization  which  permits  the  effective  instruc- 
tion of  the  maximum  number  of  children  in  a  plant 
having  modern  facilities.  From  this  point  of  viev/,  the 
Gary  organization  is  perhaps  the  most  fruitful  suggestion 
yet  contributed  toward  the  practical  solution  of  the  ad- 
ministrative problems  involved  in  realizing  a  broad  con- 
ception of  public  education. 

Finally,  Gary  has  attempted  to  practise  democratic 
theory  in  school  conduct  and  discipline.  It  is  a  common- 
place that  arbitrary  or  military  discipline  is  alien  to  the 
American  spirit.  Cooperation,  representing  the  wilHng 
subordination  of  the  individual  in  the  endeavor  to  achieve 
necessary  and  desirable  ends,  must  somehow  be  pro- 
cured. In  various  ways — in  classroom,  corridors,  audi- 
torium, shop,  etc. — Gary  appeals  to  the  cooperative 
spirit,  relies  on  it,  believes  in  it,  gives  it  something  to  do — 
at  times  perhaps  unwisely  and  to  excess.  In  any  event, 
the  schools  are  rich  in  color  and  movement,  they  are 
places  where  children  live  as  well  as  learn,  places  where 
children  obtain  educational  values,  not  only  through 
books,  but  through  genuine  life  activities.  The  Gary 
schools  make  a  point  not  only  of  the  well  known  measur- 
able abilities,  but  of  happiness  and  appreciation,  wliich 
cannot  be  measured,  even  though  they  may  be  sensed. 
It  does  not  follow  that  Gary  obtains  no  results  from  these 
efforts,  merely  because  the  outcome  of  its  efforts  in 
classroom  work  is  unsatisfactory.  The  final  results  of 
appreciation  and  stimulus  are  too  subtle,  too  remote,  too 
readily  obscured  or  augmented  by  other  factors  in  ex- 


CONCLUSION  199 

perience  or  environment  to  be  themselves  definitely  ap- 
praised. But  evidence  that  appeal  to  the  appreciative 
instincts  is  not  made  in  vain  is  encountered  now  here, 
now  there,  in  the  activities,  interests,  and  attitudes  of 
teachers  and  children  alike. 

There  are,  it  is  clear,  two  distinct  bodies  of  material 
employed  at  Gary,  each  having  its  appropriate  method 
of  approach :  first,  definite  subjects,  that  have  in  the  last 
resort  to  be  *' learned"  in  such  wise  that  the  pupil  may 
attain  and  demonstrate  a  reasonable  degree  of  mastery; 
next,  aesthetic  or  other  activities,  giving  wholesome  pleas- 
ure at  the  time  and  tending  to  establish  higher  levels  of 
need  and  taste.  The  traditional  pedagogue  concen- 
trates on  the  first  group  and  relentlessly  organizes  the 
subjects  contained  within  it.  The  philosopher,  insisting 
that  at  its  best  education  suppUes  the  means  of  natural 
growth,  emphasizes  the  second  group,  not  infrequently 
revolting  from  systematic  presentation  and  precise  re- 
sults. A  really  effective  school  will  undoubtedly  harmo- 
nize the  two.  It  will  set  up  high  and  definite  standards  of 
workmanship  for  tasks  that  represent  desired  skills — 
spelling,  arithmetic,  cooking,  sewing,  or  what  not — en- 
deavoring to  reach  these  by  employing  well  thought  out 
and  well  wrought  out  methods  of  procedure;  it  will  also 
provide  a  variety  of  experiences  of  a  stimulating  and  ap- 
preciative character,  without  being  overmuch  concerned 
at  the  moment  to  decide  why  they  are  good,  or  what  good 
they  do,  then  or  thereafter.  One  gets  at  Gary  the  im- 
pression of  confusion  in  this  matter.    The  auditorium,  for 


200  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

example,  embodies  largely  the  stimulating  and  apprecia- 
tive experiences  that  cannot  be  closely  followed  up.  But 
the  type  of  procedure  that  is  natural  to  the  auditorium 
not  infrequently  invades  the  shops,  the  cafeteria,  and 
the  classrooms,  as  if  the  passive  absorption  adapted  to 
the  auditorium  were  a  generally  applicable  educational 
method. 

We  thus  pass  to  the  debit  side  of  the  account.  The 
readers  of  this  volume  already  know  that  the  execution 
of  the  Gary  plan  is  defective.  It  is  of  course  true 
that  no  public  school  system  thus  far  critically  studied  has 
been  pronounced  satisfactory — satisfactory  in  the  sense 
that  it  meets  current  and  reasonable  standards  of  efd- 
ciency.  It  would  therefore  be  manifestly  unfair  to  de- 
mand that  Gary  should  fully  embody  and  practically 
succeed  with  every  item  of  its  varied  and  extensive  pro- 
gram. A  good  many  extenuating  considerations  may  be 
fairly  urged — the  newness  of  the  community,  the  com- 
plexities due  to  the  character  of  the  population,  the 
breadth  of  the  conception,  the  enormous  difficulty  of 
obtaining  a  teaching  and  supervising  staff  competent  to 
execute  the  plan.  But  after  making  every  possible  al- 
lowance, it  remains  to  be  admitted  that  in  respect  to  ad- 
ministration and  instruction  Gary  might  fairly  have 
been  expected  to  make  a  better  showing. 

Fundamentally,  the  defect  is  one  of  administration. 
No  scheme  will  execute  itself.  Precisely  because  the 
Gary  scheme  is  complicated,  extensive,  and  at  some 
points  novel,  uncommonly  watchful  administrative  con- 


CONCLUSION  201 

trol  is  requisite.  Such  control  does  not  exist.  In  con- 
sequence, results  appear  to  be  largely  taken  for  granted. 
Illustrations  in  proof  of  this  statement  may  be  drawn 
from  many  of  the  preceding  chapters.  For  example, 
the  present  organization  assumes  that  satisfactory 
educational  results  are  obtained  when  the  plant  con- 
sists half  of  regular  classrooms  and  half  of  special 
facilities,  and  these  facilities  are  kept  in  continuous  use. 
As  the  plan  works  out,  the  groups  assembled  at  Gary  in 
the  auditorium  or  on  the  playground  are  large  or  small, 
composed  of  a  single  grade  or  many  grades,  according  to 
the  requirements  of  a  schedule  constructed  on  this  basis. 
It  would,  of  course,  be  most  convenient  if  this  somewhat 
mechanical  arrangement  proved  educationally  effective. 
But  does  it?  Not,  in  our  judgment,  without  certain  cau- 
tions and  quahhcations  which  Gary  has  thus  far  neg- 
lected. The  "duplicate"  school  organization  should 
therefore  be  viewed  as  an  experiment  to  be  watched  and 
modified  rather  than  assumed  as  a  principle  according  to 
which  a  school  schedule  may  be  arbitrarily  arranged. 

The  execution  of  the  Gary  plan  is  again  defective  in 
respect  to  educational  supervision.  To  be  sure,  teaching 
and  discipHne  in  harmony  with  the  Gary  idea  are  to  be 
found;  side  by  side,  however,  are  also  teaching  and  dis- 
cipline of  old-fashioned  type.  Of  course,  this  is  inevi- 
table. No  consistently  modern  scheme  could  be  com- 
pletely reaUzed  at  this  time,  because  the  materials  have 
not  as  yet  been  created,  the  teachers  have  not  yet  been 
trained.     Criticism  is  warranted,  not  because  crudities 


202  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

and  inconsistencies  occur,  but  because  the  agencies  which 
ought  to  be  concerned  over  this  situation  have  failed  to 
take  hold  of  it  vigorously.  Consequently  in  the  so-called 
"old  line"  branches,  the  fundamental  necessities  of  edu- 
cation, Gary  execution  falls  short  of  usual  performance. 
In  reaching  out  for  something  new,  Gary  has  too  lightly 
parted  with  certain  essential  and  established  values, 
without  being  aware  of  the  loss  it  has  inadvertently 
made. 

Not  even  in  those  branches  to  which  Gary  has  given 
impetus  and  development — the  so-called  special  activi- 
ties— has  a  high  or  even  satisfactory  standard  been 
reached.  An  excellent  spirit  pervaded  the  playgrounds, 
gymnasiums,  shops,  laboratories,  and  household  arts  de- 
partments. But  high — even  satisfactory — standards  of 
workmanship  did  not  rule.  Some  boys  and  girls  did 
well;  some  did  ill;  concerted  effort  to  procure  generally 
good  work,  conscientious  insistence  upon  excellent  perfor- 
mance are  only  spasmodically  in  evidence.  Not  that 
teachers  and  principals  do  not  want  good  work;  they 
plainly  do.  But  that  patient  and  close  attention  to 
details  by  which  alone  good  work  can  be  obtained  was 
far  too  irregular  to  be  effective.  Here,  as  elsewhere, 
one  cannot  avoid  the  conclusion  that  a  large  and  gener- 
ous scheme,  distinguished  by  intelligence  and  vision  in 
conception,  falls  too  far  short  in  the  execution. 

Attention  has  been  called  to  the  ways  in  which  pupils 
participate  in  responsible  activities — record  keeping,  etc. 
Such  participation  is  admirably  calculated  to  give  a  fla- 


CONCLUSION  203 

vor  of  reality  to  school  life.  What  ought,  however,  to 
be  a  credit  item  is  converted  into  a  debit  because  the 
absence  of  proper  accountability  results  in  slipshod  work 
that  must  do  the  pupils  positive  damage.  Records 
characterized  by  poor  spelHng,  arithmetical  inaccuracies, 
and  grave  omissions  pass  unchallenged.  Not  only  is 
the  immediate  educative  effect  lost,  but  the  child  tends 
to  become  habituated  to  inferior  performance.  Thus, 
once  more  sound  conception  is  frustrated  by  ineffective 
execution. 

Could  the  Gary  scheme  be  acceptably  executed  with- 
out additional  expenditure?  If  not,  how  much  more 
would  have  to  be  spent?  Or  can  results  of  higher  quality 
be  obtained  on  the  present  outlay  only  by  attempting 
less?  We  are  unable  to  say.  These  questions  cannot 
be  finally  answered  until  the  present  administrative 
and  supervisory  officers  either  conceive  their  functions 
somewhat  differently  or  exercise  them  more  effectively. 
Unquestionably,  the  mere  process  of  gearing  up  the  pres- 
ent organization  would  substantially  improve  results; 
for  which  reason  it  would  be  unwise  either  to  curtail 
opportunities  or  largely  to  increase  expenditure  until 
the  existing  system  has  shown  what  it  can  accomplish 
when  on  the  alert. 

An  eminent  surgeon,  accounting  for  his  success  in 
treating  a  recalcitrant  wound,  recently  remarked  of  the 
hospital  with  which  he  is  associated:  "Here  we  try 
things."  He  did  not  mean  that  he  and  his  associates 
follow  a  hit-or-miss  policy.    He  was,  in  point  of  fact, 


204  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

describing  an  arduous,  rigorous,  exacting,  and  at  the 
same  time  strictly  accountable  procedure.  They  can- 
vass their  resources,  select  in  a  critical  way  the 
moves  which  may  reasonably  be  expected  to  prove 
beneficial,  and  with  the  most  scrupulous  care  watch 
the  outcome,  determining  the  next  procedure  on  the 
basis  of  ascertained  results.  They  "try  things,"  but 
they  "try  things"  intelligently  and  critically. 

It  is  a  severe  criticism  of  much  of  our  current  education 
that  it  does  not  "  try  things."  This  modem  world  of  ours 
is  in  many  ways  a  new  world,  with  new  peoples  facing 
new  problems  and  new  opportunities.  We  tell  ourselves 
again  and  again  that  only  through  education  can  safe 
and  happy  adjustments  be  reached;  no  one  pretends  that 
education  has  yet  found  these  adjustments.  Never- 
theless, educational  inertia  is  all  but  invincible.  Only 
here  and  there  in  the  person  of  this  or  that  teacher  or 
principal  or  supervisor  does  it  "try  things."  And  the 
moment  it  is  proposed  to  "try  things" — the  only  method 
by  which  progress  can  be  made— the  forces  of  conserva- 
tism organize  to  check  and  discredit  progressive  en- 
terprise. 

It  is  to  the  substantial  and  lasting  credit  of  Gary  that 
it  has  had  the  courage,  Uberality,  and  imagination  to 
"try  things."  Nor  have  things  been  tried  blindly  and 
recklessly.  The  social  situation  to  be  dealt  with  has  been 
thoughtfully  analyzed;  the  resources  at  our  disposal 
have  been  intelligently  marshaled.  That  is,  Gary  did  not 
act  in  ignorance  of  the  situation  to  be  met;  it  did  not  em- 


CONCLUSION  205 

ploy  ill  adjusted  tools.  It  has  failed  only  in  caution  and 
criticism.  Hence,  while  things  have  been  tried,  results 
have  not  been  carefully  checked.  Disappointment  was 
inevitable,  but  it  is  disappointment  that  does  not  nec- 
essarily imply  fundamental  error. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  understand  why  self-criticism  was 
overlooked.  Education  has  for  centuries  too  largely 
consisted  of  exercises  habitually  practised,  partly  for 
known  and  obvious,  partly  for  unknown,  ends.  It 
made  little  practical  difference  whether  the  end  was 
known  or  unknown,  because  in  neither  case  were  school- 
men accustomed  to  examine  results  carefully  in  order  to 
ascertain  what  their  efforts  and  processes  achieved.  In 
failing  to  scrutinize  results,  Gary  simply  did  as  others 
did.  There  is  also  another  consideration.  The  Gary 
scheme  was  conceived  in  enthusiasm.  The  tempera- 
ment of  the  reformer  is  not  usually  associated  in  the 
same  individual  wdth  the  temperament  of  the  critic. 
The  two  must,  however,  be  brought  together.  The  in- 
novator must  formulate  his  purposes  clearly  and  con- 
cretely; and  his  results  must  be  measured  in  the  Ught  of 
his  professed  aims.  If  innovation  is  carried  on  in  this 
critical  spirit,  conservatism  will  also  have  to  submit  to 
assay. 

The  theory  of  which  Gary  is  an  exemplification  is  de- 
rived from  the  facts  and  necessities  of  modern  life.  The 
defects  of  Gary  cannot  therefore  simply  throw  us  back 
on  the  meager  type  of  education  appropriate  enough 
to  other  conditions.     Gary's  experience  up  to  this  time 


2o6  THE  GARY  SCHOOLS 

means  merely  that  further  efforts,  at  Gary  and  else- 
where, more  clearly  defined,  more  effectively  controlled, 
m.ust  be  made  in  order,  if  possible,  to  accomplish 
Gary's  avowed  object — the  making  of  our  schools  ade- 
quate to  the  needs  and  conditions  of  current  life. 


APPENDIX 


Amount  of  Instruction  Observed 

Our  judgments  of  the  quality  of  the  regular  instruc- 
tion at  Gary  are  based  on  four  months  of  intimate 
contact  with  the  classroom  work.  Short  visits  to  all 
departments  gave  us  numerous  samples  of  what  was 
going  on.  But  our  chief  reUance  is  the  full  notes  on 
228  recitations,  the  unit  of  observation  being  the  en- 
tire lesson  period,  which  varies  from  thirty  to  sixty 
minutes.  These  observations  were  distributed  as  the 
table  on  the  following  page  indicates. 

Our  task  had  to  do  with  the  teaching  of  the  basic 
studies  only.  But  to  get  the  larger  view  needed  to  inter- 
pret the  regular  work,  our  observations  extended  to  other 
than  the  fundamental  studies. 

The  intensiveness  of  our  observations  is  revealed  by 
the  amount  of  time  spent  with  each  teacher.  The  total 
number  of  teachers,  exclusive  of  physical  training  teachers 

209 


210 


APPENDIX 


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APPENDIX 


211 


and  shopmen,  is  one  hundred  and  twenty  one.    We  ob- 
served the  work  of  one  hundred  of  these,  as  follows : 


SCHOOLS 

NUMBER 

OF 

TEACHERS 

OBSERVED 

HOURS 

(60  min- 
utes) 
observed 

NUMBER     OF     TEACHERS 

OBSERVED  GIVEN  NITMBER 

OF  HOURS 

1 

2 

3 

4 

Emerson 
Froebel 
Jeflferson 
Beveridge 
Glen  Park     . 
24th  Avenue 
Ambridge 
Clarke    .       . 
West  Gary 

23 
35 
14 
9 
7 
5 
3 
2 
2 

57 
58 
22 
11 
13 

1 

2 

2 

3 

17 
7 
8 
1 
2 
3 
2 
2 

7 

13 

6 

6 
3 

12 
5 
1 
1 

1 

Total         .      . 

100 

176            45 

35 

19 

1 

In  addition  to  spending  one  hour  in  the  classroom  with 
forty  five  per  cent,  of  these  teachers,  two  hours  with 
thirty  five  per  cent.,  and  three  hours  with  nineteen  per 
cent.,  probably  an  equal  amount  of  time  was  devoted 
to  talking  with  the  several  teachers  about  their  work. 

B 

School  Records  and  Reports 

From  the  beginning  Gary  has  had  a  rather  complete 
system  of  records,  covering  most  of  the  essential  items. 
It  centers  about  the  so-called  register  teacher,  who  is 
supposed  to  take  the  school  census,  to  keep  all  records, 
and  to  make  all  reports  for  children  coming  to  school 
from  a  particular  section  or  division  of  the  city,  irre- 


212  APPENDIX 

spective  of  whether  she  has  any  of  them  in  her  classes. 
Current  as  well  as  permanent  records  are  stored  in  the 
rooms  of  the  register  teachers.  The  principal  seldom  has 
in  his  office  more  than  a  list  of  pupils  in  school  and 
the  register  sheets  of  those  who  have  dropped  out.  Such 
reports  as  the  register  teacher  makes  concern  her  dis- 
trict; they  are  almost  never  summarized  by  classes,  by 
schools,  or  for  the  system  as  a  whole. 

Without  published  reports  for  the  system  and  without 
summaries  for  the  several  schools,  except  on  enrollment 
and  attendance,  we  were  thrown  back  for  the  needed 
educational  data  on  the  original  records  of  the  register 
teachers,  and  such  reports  as  could  be  procured  through 
regular  class  teachers.  The  task  of  collecting  the  needed 
data,  most  of  them  from  pupil  record  sheets,  was  a  pro- 
digious one,  often  complicated  by  the  incompleteness  of  the 
records  and  by  differences  which  had  to  be  reconciled. 
For  example,  different  reports  on  class  enrollment  did 
not  agree;  the  age  and  grade  of  pupils  as  given  by  the 
register  teacher  and  by  the  class  teacher  were  often  at 
variance;  similarly  with  reports  on  the  length  of  time 
children  had  been  in  the  Gary  schools. 


Methods  of  Computing  Over  Age  and  Differences 
IN  Results 

There  are  a  number  of  recognized  methods  of  com- 
puting age-grade  status,  notably  those  developed  and 


APPENDIX 


213 


employed  by  Ayres,*  Strayer,^  and  Bachman.^  Inas- 
much as  these  methods  yield  different  results,  all  three 
were  employed  in  computing  the  age-grade  status  of  the 
Gary  children. 

The  age-grade  status  of  the  Gary  children  according 
to  these  methods  is  as  follows : 


METHOD 

PER   CENT. 
UNDER  AGE 

PER   CENT. 
NORMAL  AGE 

PER   CENT. 
OVER   AGE 

Ayres^       .... 

Strayer^ 

Bachman^ 

42 

8 

22 

33 
67 

40 

25 

25 
38 

iThe  ages  of  the  children  were  taken  as  of  June  23,  and  the  status  determined  before 
promotion. 
2For  details,  see  Table  XXXVH,  Appendix  D,  page  2S4A. 

The  fact  that  the  reported  age-grade  status  of  chil- 
dren differs  according  to  the  method  of  computation 
employed  would  not  be  so  important  if  there  were  at 
hand  for  each  method  an  abundance  of  reliable  compara- 
ble data.  Unfortunately,  such  data  are  exceedingly 
meager. 

For  example,  Ayres  computed  in  191 1  the  age-grade 
status  of  the  children  in  twenty  nine  American  cities.^ 
When  first  published,  these  data  were  excellent  for  com- 
parative purposes,  but  they  are  now  largely  antiquated. 
To  illustrate,  Ayres  reported  in  191 1  48  per  cent,  of  over 

^The  Identification  of  the  Misfit  Child.  Russell  Sage  Foundation,  1911. 
*Age  and  Grade  Census  of  Schools  and  Colleges.    Bulletin  of   the 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  No.  5,  igii. 
'Elementary  School  Administration.     World  Book.  Co.,  1915. 
<The  Identification  of  the  Misfit  Child. 


214  APPENDIX 

age  at  Montclair,  N.  J.,  whereas  the  official  report  for 
19 1 5-16  shows  only  16  per  cent.  Similarly,  in  191 1 
Ayres  gave  the  over  age  at  Racine,  Wisconsin,  as  28 
per  cent.,  whereas  Racine  reports  for  191 5-16  only  11 
per  cent.  Moreover,  the  reports  of  cities  where  Ayres' 
method  is  now  employed  reveal  so  many  variations  in 
application,  such  as  time  of  taking  the  ages  of  the  children, 
time  of  determining  the  status  of  the  children,  and  the 
like,  that  a  diligent  search  failed  to  uncover  compara- 
tive data  that  could  be  used  with  safety. 

With  the  help  of  the  Michigan  study  of  1915,^  the 
situation  with  respect  to  comparable  data  for  Strayer's 
method  is  better.  It  should,  however,  be  kept  in  mind 
that  these  data  are  for  a  single  state,  also  that  the  ages 
of  the  Michigan  children  are  for  their  last  birthday  prior 
to  December,  whereas  the  ages  of  the  Gary  children  are 
as  of  June  23d.  The  effect  of  this  is  to  augment  the 
amount  of  Gary  over  age — just  how  much  we  do  not 
know.  The  age-grade  status  of  the  children  in  the 
Michigan  cities  that  might  be  compared  with  Gary  is  as 
follows : 


iBerry:  A  Study  of  Retardation,  Acceleration,  etc.,  in  the  Public  Ele- 
mentary Schools  of  Two  Hundred  Twenty-five  Towns  and  Cities  of 
Michigan.    (1915.) 


APPENDIX 


215 


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APPENDIX 


TABLE  m 

Teacher's  Daily  Program,  West  Gary  School 
Spring  Term  1915-16 


TIME 

SUBJECT 

GRADE 

9:00—  9:05 

Opening  Exercises 

9:05—  9:25 

Reading 

4th 

9:25—  9:45 

Reading 

5th 

9:45—10:00 

Reading 

6th 

10:00—10:10 

Arithmetic 

4th 

10:10—10:30 

Arithmetic 

5th  and  6th 

10:30—10:45 

Arithmetic 

7th  and  8thi 

10:45—11:00 

Spelling 

4th  and  5th 

11:00—11:15 

Spelling 

6th,  7th,  and  8th 

11:15—12:00 

\\'riting 

All  grades 

12:00—12:45 

Lunch 

12:45—  1:00 

Music  and  Drawing^ 

All  grades 

1:00—  1:25 

Grammar 

4th  and  5th    ' 

1:25—  1:35 

Grammar 

6th 

1:35—  1:45 

Grammar 

7th  and  8th 

1:4&— 2:00 

Physiology 

6th,  7th,  and  8th  (Mondays, 
Wednesdaj-s,  and  Fridays) 

2:00—  2:15 

Geography 

4th  and  5th  (Tuesdays  and 
Thursdays) 

2:15—  2:30 

Recess  and 

Free  Play 

2:30—  2:45 

Geography 

6th 

2:45—  3:00 

Geography 

7th  and  8th 

3:00—  3:15 

History 

4th  and  5th 

3:15—  3:30 

History 

6th 

3:30—  3:45 

History 

7th  and  8th 

'At  this  period  all  other  grades  have  recess  and  free  play. 
'Drawing  includes  some  nature  study  and  handwork. 


APPENDIX 


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APPENDIX 
TABLE  DC 


Ranking  of  Studies  and  Activities  Based  on  Average  Time  Allot- 
ment IN  Froebel,  Emerson,  and  Jefferson,  1915-16 


AVERAGE 
TOTAL 
HOURS 

ALLOTTED 

PER  CENT. 

OF  TOTAL 
ELEMENTARY 
SCHOOL  TIME 

Rank  of  Different  Subjects 

I  Physical  Training  and  Play .  . 
a  Drawing  and  Manual  Training 

3  Auditorium 

4  Reading 

5  Arithmetic 

2,697 

1,605 

1,600 

1,323 

958 

798 

567 

496 

339 

329 

238 

188 

62 

24 
14 
14 
12 
9 

6  Language 

7  Science 

8  Spelling 

9  History 

10  Writing 

1 1  Geography 

1 2  Music 

13  German 

7 
5 
4 
3 
3 
2 
2 
1 

Rank  of  Conventional  Groups 
Special  Subjects: 

German 

Music 

Auditorium 

Drawing  and  Manual  Training 
Physical  Training  and  Play . . . 

62 

188 

1,600 

1,605 

2,697 

1 

2 

14 

14 

24 

Total 

6,152 

55 

The  Fundamentals: 

The  Three  R's 

Geography 

History 

Science 

3,904 
238 
339 
567 

35 
2 
3 
5 

Total 

5,048 

45 

The  Three  R's: 

Reading 

Language 

Spelling 

Writing 

Arithmetic 

1,323 
798 
496 

329 

958 

12 
7 
4 
3 
9 

Total 

3,904 

35 

Total 

11,200 

100 

APPENDIX 


229 


TABLE  X 

Length  of  School  Day  est  Cities  Having  Population  of  100,000 

OR  More 


HOURS   IN   SCHOOL   DAY 

NUMBER   OF   CITIES 

4i 

1 

4^ 

2 

4f 

3 

5 

31 

5i 

7 

61 

3 

5f 

2 

6 

1 

Total  50 

The  length  of  the  school  day  reported  is  that  for  the  upper  grades;  the 
common  tendency  to  shorten  the  school  day  in  the  primary  grades  bj^  a 
quarter  to  a  half  hour  is  ignored. 


TABLE  XI 

Length  of  School  Day  in  Cities  Having  Population  Between 
25,000  AND  50,000 


HOURS   IN   school   DAY 

NUMBER   OF   CITLES 

4i 

8 

4f 

7 

5 

47 

5i 

22 

5i 

22 

5f 

5 

6 

8 

61 

1 

Total  120 

The  length  of  the  school  day  reported  is  that  for  the  upper  grades; 
the  common  tendency  to  shorten  the  school  day  by  a  quarter  to  a  half 
hour  in  the  primary  grades  is  ignored. 


230 


APPENDIX 


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APPENDIX 


TABLE  XIV 
Gary  High  School  Courses,  1915-16^ 


SUBJECTS 


English 

Expression 

Latin 

German 

French 

^Mathematics 

History 

Zoology 

Botany 

Physics 

Chemistry 

Freehand  Drawing.  . 
Llechanical  Drawing. 

Cooking 

Sewing 

Industrial  Work.  .  .  . 
Commercial  Work. . . 

^Music 

Physical  Training .... 

Total  units 


NUMBER    OF    YEARS     WORK 
OR    UNITS    OFFERED    IN   EACH 


EMERSON 

FROEBEL 

4 

3 

0 

1 

3 

2 

2 

3 

2 

0 

4 

3 

3 

1 
1 
1 
1 

1 
1 
1 
2 

1 

1 

1 

30 


22/^ 


'These  courses  of  study  were  constructed  from  a  study  of  the  programs  of  the  two 
schools,  from  consultation  with  heads  of  departments,  and  have  been  checked  by  the  high 
school  principals. 


APPENDIX 


235 


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236 


APPENDIX 


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APPENDIX 


237 


TABLE  XVII 

Preparation  of  Ejndergarten  Teachers' 


'Exclusive  of  i  not  reporting. 


PREPARATION 

NUMBERS 

Standard  High  School 

2  years'  additional  special  work 

3  "             "              "          "    .  . 

7 

4 
3 

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2 

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2 

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3  "             "             "          "    .  . 

1 
1 

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1 

No  additional  special  work 

1 

Total 

12 

238 


APPENDIX 


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APPENDIX 


239 


TABLE  XIX 

Prep.^ration  of  Shopmen 

prepar.\tion 

Elementary  School 

25  j-ears'  trade  experience 

17      "         "  "        

14     "         "  " 

4  "         "  "        '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.. 

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12      "         "  "        

5  "        "  "        

Standard  High  School 

25  years'  trade  experience 

16      "         "  "        

10      "         "  "        

Total 


11 


240 


APPENDIX 


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APPENDIX 


253 


TABLE  XXXIII 

Total  Enrollment  and  A\-erage  Daily  Attendance 


PER  CENT. 

TOTAL 

AVER.\GE  DAILY 

OF  ENROLLMENT 

YEAR 

ENROLLMENT^ 

ATTEND  ANCE^ 

IN  AVERAGE 
DAILY  ATTENDANCE 

1906-7 

143 

85 

59 

1907-8 

492 

273 

55 

1908-9 

1,141 

714 

63 

1909-10 

1,502 

957 

64 

1910-11 

2,542 

1,936 

76 

1911-12 

3,293 

2,222 

67 

1912-13 

4,188 

3,115 

74 

1913-14 

5,061 

3,563 

70 

1914-15 

5,352 

4,087 

76 

1915-16 

5,654 

4,132 

73 

iTotal  enrollment  includes  all  the  different  children  in  the  system  during  the  course 
of  the  school  year  as  officially  reported. 

^Average  daily  attendance  equals  the  total  days  of  attendance  divided  by  the  number 
of  days  the  schools  were  in  session. 


TABLE  XXXIV 
Per  Cent,  of  Attendance  for  All  Gary  Schools 


YEAR 

TOT^VL 

TOTAL  D.\YS 

TOTAL  DAYS 

PER  CENT.  OF 

ENROLLirENT^ 

ATTEND.AXCE 

ABSENCE^ 

ATTENDANCE 

1911-12 

3,293 

415,279 

63,133 

87 

1912-13 

4,188 

525,519 

86,646 

86 

1913-14 

5,061 

720,206 

80,364 

90 

1914-15 

5,352 

734,161 

77,549 

90 

1915-16 

5,654 

827,688 

97,809 

89 

^Includes  kindergarten,  elementary  school,  and  high  school. 

'In  case  of  continued  absence,  the  child  is  marked  absent  until  the  end  of  the  month, 
when  he  is  recorded  as  withdra\vn.  This  is  in  contrast  to  the  practice  of  dropping  chil- 
dren from  the  active  roll  after  three  days  of  continuous  absence. 


254 


APPEXDDC 


TABLE  XXXVI 

Elementary  Enrollment!  j>^t  2d  to  8tii  Grades  for  School  Ye\r 
1915-16  BY  Days 


NLTIBER 

PER  CENT. 

CLTJULATRTE 

DAYS 

OF  PUPILS 

OF  TOTAL 

PER  CENT. 

enrolled 

ENROLLED 

ENROLLMENT 

ENROLLMENT 

200 

2,214 

82.5 

82.5 

190  up  to  200 

30 

1.1 

83.6 

180  up  to  190 

45 

1.7 

85.3 

170  up  to  180 

19 

0.7 

86 

160  up  to  170 

23 

0.9 

86.9 

150  up  to  160 

22 

0.8 

87.7 

140  up  to  150 

31 

1.2 

88.9 

130  up  to  140 

17 

0.6 

89.5 

120  up  to  130 

36 

1.3 

90.8 

110  up  to  120 

15 

0.6 

91.4 

100  up  to  110 

32 

1.2 

92.6 

90  up  to  100 

9 

0.3 

92.9 

80  up  to  90 

25 

0.9 

93.8 

70  up  to  80 

15 

0.6 

94.4 

60  up  to  70 

49 

1.8 

96.2 

50  up  to  60 

14 

0.5 

96.7 

40  up  to  50 

33 

1.2 

97.9 

80  up  to  40 

22 

0.8 

98.7 

20  up  to  30 

24 

0.9 

99.6 

10  up  to  20 

7 

0.3 

99.9 

1  up  to  10 

2 

0.1 

100 

Total.  . . . 

2,684 

100 

100 

^Enrollment  includes  all  pupils  on  register  in  grades  2  to  8  at  the  end  of  the  year,  except 
40  of  unknown  length  of  enrollment.  The  first  grade  was  excluded  because  in  some  cases, 
where  pupih  were  promoted  from  the  kindergarten,  the  record  of  enrollment  included 
the  days  h)Oth  for  the  kindergarten  and  the  higher  grade,  but  quite  as  frequently  account 
was  taken  only  of  the  days  in  the  first  grade.  Eight  hundred  and  eighty -eight  first  graie 
pupils  were  thus  eliminated;  the  cards  showed,  however,  that  573  were  enrolled  the  entire 
year  of  200  days.  Withdrawals  were  excluded  because  there  was  no  way  of  telling,  in  most 
cases,  whether  they  entered  early  or  late. 


TABLE  XXXV 
Attendance  by  Periods  of  Enrollment' 


Days  Attended 

Total 
Enrolled 

Given 
Number 
OF  Days 

Per  Cent.  OP 
Attendance 

FOR  Each 
Lnterval  OF 
Enrollment 

Davs 
Enrolled 

200 

190 

OTTO 

200 

180' 
"19™ 

170 

160 
UP  10 
170 

160 
160 

140 
150 

130 
140 

120 
130 

110 
120 

100 
110 

90 
100 

80 
90 

70 

80 

60 
70 

60 
60 

40 

UP  TO 

50 

30 
40 

20 

UP  TO 

30 

10 
20 

1 
10 

200 
190  up  to  200 
180  up  to  190 
170  up  to  180 
160  up  to  170 
160  up  to  160 
140  up  to  160 
130  up  to  140 
120  up  to  130 
110  up  to  120 
100  up  to  110 
90  up  to  100 
80  up  to   90 
70  up  to   80 
60  up  to   70 
50  up  to   60 
40  up  to   60 
30  up  to   40 
20  up  to   30 
10  up  to  20 
1  up  to   10 

79 

8 

i4 
6 

613 
7 
3 

348 
2 
16 

1 

141 
7 
4 
8 
3 

7 
3 
7 
6 
8 
3 

36 

■9 
3 
3 
9 

1 
1 

5 
2 
3 

6' 
7 
5 
2 

2 
1 

11 
7 
3 

7 
1 
2 

i 
3 
3 

16 

7 

6 

16 
3 
3 

"i' 

1 
20 
5 

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i' 

1 
1 
3 
3 
3 
4 

"6' 

1 
18 

5 

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1 

8 
16 

2 
29 
3 

"1' 

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10 
13 

1 

14 
9 

"2 

6 
11 
21 

3 
6 

1 
2 

2,214 
30 
45 
19 
23 
22 
31 
17 
36 
15 
32 
9 
26 
16 
49 
14 
33 
22 
24 
7 
2 

92 
85 
87 
90 
87 
91 
90 
88 
90 
89 
90 
92 
93 
92 
93 
90 
87 
87 
91 
94 
100 

Total  attending 
given  number 
of  days 

79 

890 

623 

367 

163 

104 

60 

49 

31 

40 

36 

27 

19 

29 

29 

34 

26 

24 

40 

11 

3 

2,684 

92 

iFor  children  included  in  this  table,  si 


o  Table  XXXW.    The  per  c 


t  hy  the  sum  of  the  total  days  enrolled. 


AOES 

TABLE  XXXVn 
AND  Grades  of  Eleuentaby  Childken 

1 

1 

GUDE 

Ages  by  Years  and  Months 

5:4 
OTTO 

6;8 
OT^TO 

6 

6:4 

6:4 

^:8° 

6:8 
7 

7 

UP  TO 

7:4 

7:4 

OTTO 

7:8 

7:8 

OTTO 

8 

8 

OTTO 

8:4 

8:4 

UP  TO 

8:8 

8:8 
OTTO 

9 

9 

OTTO 
9:4 

9:4 
9:8 

9:8 

10 

10 

To™ 

10:4 
OTTO 
10:8 

10:8 
11 

11 
11:4 

11:4 
11:8 

11:8 
12 

12 
12:4 

12:4 
T2™ 

12:8        13 

otto    otto 

13       13:4 

13:4 

OTTO 
13:8 

13:8 

OTTO 

14 

14 

OTTO 

14:4 

14:4 

OTTO 
14:8 

14:8 

16 

15 

15:4 

15:4 
15:8 

15:8 
OTTO 

16 

16 
T6™ 

16:4 

UP- TO 

16:8 

16:8 
17 

17 

17.4 

17:4     Total 

IC 
IB 
lA 
.2C 
2B 
2A 
8C 
SB 
3A 
4C 
4B 
4A 
6C 
6B 
5A 
6C 
6B 
«A 
7C 
7B 
7A 
8C 
8B 
8A 
Graduates 

r 

s 

1 

'  2 

16 

57 
61 

17 
35 
43 

10 

20 
17 

2 
10 
27 

5 
1 
13 
39 

4 
6 
18 
23 
19 

3 
5 

8 
19 
14 
11 

2 
6 
11 
10 
8 
13 
19 

1 
2 
4 
6 
IZ 
6 
16 
20 

"5 
1 
2 
2 
8 
19 
13 

1 

1 
3 
2 
3 
6 
8 
14 
24 

"2 
2 
3 
7 
4 
6 
.      6 
17 
21 

1 
1 

3 
6 
6 
4 
9 

"l 

3 

7 
14 
10 
10 
15 

1 
2 
3 

■"4 
6 
2 
4 

11 
11 

18 
3 

"1 
"l 

"i 
a 
2 
7 

6 

6 
11 

6 
14 

"1 

"2 
6 
2 
6 

7 

'I 

\l 
8 
9 

10 

"2 

3 
3 

14 
2 
4 

14 
3 

■    2 
3 
4 

11 
2 
2 
8 
6 

16 

"1 

"2 
14 

'4 
9 
4 
8 

"i 

1 

"i 

1 

"5' 

"6 
3 
9 
7 

10 

"i' 

"i' 

1 

"2 
1 

4 
6 
2 
6 
7 

? 

"i' 
"i' 

1 

1 
4 
3 
2 
4 
4 
2 

'  i' 

"i' 
"i' 

"i' 

1 
.... 

"i 
2 
a 

.... 
1 

"i' 
"i' 

■2' 

"i' 
5 

.... 

.... 
"2 

T 

"1" 
4 

1  ■ 
"2 

r 

T 

i 

147 

Id 

6 

4 

41 
31 
68 

■■ 

12 
10 
2 
2 

i 

28 
46 
41 

58 

I 

1 

3i> 
25 
14 
^33' 
9 
4 
5 

336 

21 
10 
6 
1 
2 

22 
19 
45 

178 

12 
7 

10 
2 

1 

14 
26 
24 

114 

21 
34 

200 

ll 
7 

10 
3 

"1 

11 
17 
38 

178 

IS 

lo 

■'2 
1 
2 

la 

21 
16 

149 

10 
6 
5 

1 

23 
12 

5 
4 
3 

1 

i 

2 

1 

■  6' 

"2 
2 
5 
6 
3 
5 
6 

11 
) 

212 

9 
11 
7 
2 

S 

17 
27 

129 

18 
6 
3 
2 



14 
20 

7 

1 
2 

"2 

"i 
4 

3 
2 
3 

7 

138 

2o 
3 
12 

2 
1 

1 
2 

"i' 

8 
4 
5 

7 

E27 

7 
6 
6 
6 

"2 
1 

S 
15 
15 

58 

12 
11 
3 

"1 

13 

114 

l7 
10 
5 

1 
2 

1 
1 

1 

12 
10 
4 
IS 
9 
3 
4 
2 

i 

1 

139 

9 
4 
3 
4 
1 
5 

82 

10 
4 
6 
2 

'    1 

11 
10 
4 
8 
10 
1 
1 
4 

96 

8 
10 

5 

"     10 

107 

6 
6 
9 
1 

1 

12 
7 

76 

18 

71 

17 
1 
2 
8 

"     18 

9 
2 
ft 

119 

1 
1 
6 

1 
3 
18 

15 

4 
10 

9 
9 

39 

8 

6 

95 

Total.  . 

1 

11 

35 

145 

163 

170 

184 

168 

182 

166 

186 

164 

150 

129 

141 

136 

118 

125 

125 

117 

120 

91 

104 

97 

89 

69 

60 

66 

31 

29 

11 

15 

9 

3 

2 

1 

3,413 

Theeleine 
thoKforoitaii 

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htcm 

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if 
di 
vt 

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ba 

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be 

> 

voidab 

the  scbool  year,  exclusive  o£  70  defectives,  93  colored  cbildren.  a?  pupils  o(  unknown  CTade.  and  9  of  unknown  age.    The  axes  of  the  children  are  as  of  August  r,  roi6.  and  the  grades  as  after  pronation  ia  June,  that  is,  as  of  the  beginning  of  the  school  year  1916-17.     The  age.grade  standards  are 
ge  limit  for  completing  the  elemenuiy  course,  thus  making  the  normal  age  for  entering  the  iC  grade  6  up  to  7.     <See  Bactanao:  Problems  in  Elementary  School  Administration.) 

terms  are  not  always  of  the  same  length,  making  it  difficult  to  fix  upon  age^grade  standards  of  equal  time-intervak  for  entering  or  completing  each  sub^grade.    To  equalise  these  inurvals  for  Gary,  we  conceived  of  the  lint  term  beginnuv  August  1,  the  second,  December  X,  and  the  third.  April  i. 
e  in  systems  having  more  than  one  annual  promotion  and  school  terms  of  unequal  length . 

d 

APPENDIX 


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APPENDIX 


TABLE  XLIV 
Agj:-Grade  and  Progress  of  All  Elementary  Pupils^ 


Progress 

Age  for  Grade 

PER  cent. 

RAPID 

PER  CENT. 
NORMAL 

PER  CENT. 
SLOW 

Now  Under  Age 

Now  Normal  Age 

Now  Over  Age 

51 

12 

9 

34 
36 
18 

15 

52 
73 

Total  Per  Cent 

19 

29 

52 

«For  basis  of  this  table  see  note  to  Table  XXXVII  and  to  XLV. 


APPENDIX 


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APPENDIX 


TABLE  XLVI 

Total  Terms  Enrolled  and  Total  Terms'  Credit,  All  Chlldren, 
BY  Grades 


1 

Grade 

Total 

Terms 

Enrolled 

Total 
Terms' 
Credit 

Net  Terms 

Per  Cent,  or 

gained 

lost 

gain 

loss 

1 
2 
3 

4 
5 
6 

7 

8 

Graduates 

1,273 
2,603 
3,608 
3,854 
4,025 
3,537 
3,089 
2,206 
1,392 

522 
1,950 
2,971 
3,497 
3,566 
3,349 
3,016 
2,264 
1,464 

■'58" 
72 

751 
653 
637 
357 
459 
188 
73 

I 
5 

59 

25 

18 

9 

11 

5 

2 

Total. 

25,587 

22,599 

2,988 

12 

APPENDIX 


265 


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